The Cyclops: A Huge Terrible Beast

by Rob Cooper

‘As tall and ragged as an alp’ and with a ‘voice like thunder’ in the loosely translated words of Homer from book nine of the Odyssey; the Cyclops was indeed a menacing spectre. As with all legends it seems wildly fanciful to imagine there was such a grumpy one eyed old giant that lived alone butchering sheep and bashing brains from hapless Greeks in his spare time. However, there is some evidence as to what might have inspired the creation of such a story and the progenitor is by no means a less terrifying or majestic apparition.

Around eight million years ago there really was a ‘huge, terrible beast’ wandering around Greece. Its name was Deinotherium giganteum and it literally means ‘huge terrible beast’. The animal in question was a relative of the modern day elephant and stood 4.6 meters tall at the shoulder and could have easily massed over 10 tonnes, making it one of the largest extinct Proboscids (the group containing modern elephants) to have walked the earth, only eclipsed by the titanic imperial and possibly the steppe mammoth. The skull clearly shows an enlarged gape where in life the trunk of the animal would have attached and curious recurved backwards facing tusks which actually emerged from the lower jaw in contrast to the forwards facing tusks emerging from the upper jaw of modern elephants.

Deinotherium also had an enlarged nasal opening situated further back in the skull which indicates a particularly well developed trunk although the specifics of its appearance are difficult to gauge. The prominent trunk, along with the backwards facing tusks, imply Deinotherium may have been adept at manipulating tree branches or other objects in order to reach food. Other proposed uses of the peculiar tusks include the stripping of bark from trees as well as digging for roots and tubers. The 1895 compendium ‘Curiosities Of Science’ even stated: 

‘The family of herbivorous Cetaceans [i.e. sirenians] are connected with the Pachydermata of the land by one of the most wonderful of all the extinct creatures with which geologists have made us acquainted. This is the Deinotherium, or Terrible Beast. … It appears to have lived in the water, where the immense weight of these formidable appendages [i.e. tusks] would not be so inconvenient as on land. What these tusks were used for is a mystery; but perhaps they acted as pickaxes in digging up trees and shrubs, or as harrows in raking the bottom of the water.’

Noting the close relationships between the early whales and elephants and concluding that Deinotherium was too monumentally huge to have lived anywhere other than an aquatic environment and may have used its tusks in order to obtain food from the bottom of lakes and rivers.

Unfortunately the fossil evidence of Deinotherium is still inconclusive as the recovered teeth are suitable for both grinding and shearing indicating a varied diet and there are yet to be found any tusks with clearly preserved marks or scratched to indicate any particular use. 

So how does this tie in to the Cyclops? Many archaic cultures discovered fossil evidence of truly giant animals and it makes sense that the farming oriented Greeks might happen along a skull or two of the extinct Proboscid that used to inhabit their land. How would they have interpreted the skull of such an enormous creature? Perhaps the hole in the front of the skull was interpreted as an eye socket and the genesis of the Cyclops thus occurred. Thomas Strasser, archaeologist at California state university, Sacramento claims ‘With no concept of evolution, it makes sense that they would reconstruct them (fossil bones) in their minds as giants, monsters, sphinxes, and so on,’. 

This line of thought is particularly appealing when considering just how many similarities creatures of the past and legend share. From comparing sea serpents and plesiosaurs to dragons and dinosaurs and even sauropod leg bones to giants it seems likely that our ancestors best attempts at interpreting the fossils may have been manifest in the legends they created; and while they may have been some way of the reality, they were still thrilling to imagine. 

Deinotherium was recreated in walking with beasts interacting with early hominids - check it out in this video!

Happy grass cells!

Weird and Wonderful: A Bioluminescent Bloom!

by Danny Stubbs

You may think the vibrant blue shown in the photo above is part of a scene from Avatar or Tron, but it is in fact naturally sourced.  Some organisms are able to produce light and these are said to be bioluminescent. Bioluminescence has many valuable functions within the animal kingdom, such as illumination, distraction, warning, mimicry and attraction.

A spectacular example of this emission of light is in coastal areas when there are mass accumulations of plankton. The colour is produced by an enzyme called luciferase and a pigment called luciferin. Oxygen in the shallow marine environment reacts with luciferin and luciferase acts as a catalyst during the process. Oxyluciferin is produced in an electronically excited state and in returning to its ground state it emits a photon of light.

The glow is completely harmless to humans, and can prove quite entertaining as the following video shows. Here the surface is being disturbed, prompting the algae to give off their iridescent blue glow.

@Bristol Space Odyssey

by Laura Rogers

Ever wanted to play on all the exciting exhibits at the At-Bristol science centre, but felt too embarrassed as they are surrounded by children? Ever wanted to stargaze on the roof overlooking Millenium Square? Ever wanted to drink alcohol whilst at a museum? Well, adult-only nights at the At-Bristol are the perfect excuse.

I was lucky enough to attend ‘A Space Odyssey’, the adult-only night that enabled you to adventure into the depths of the sky and discover how we explore them. The night was from 6:30 to 10:00pm, however, this was not enough time to explore the whole venue and experience everything they had to offer. An insightful talk was given, in which experiments were conducted to show how satellites work. A personal favourite was when a spring was placed in hot water and immediately straightened. This phenomenon was applied to a model of a satellite, enabling it to open its wings via a current being passed through the wire, heating it up and straightening it. The welcoming Bristol Astronomical Society exhibited their telescopes, allowing us to observe stars in the sky. It was fascinating to see how a tiny spec in the sky was actually 2 stars, one orange and one blue. We had the chance to explore a recreated Martian landscape and analyse rock samples which was incredible.

At-Bristol has hundreds of interactive exhibits including: a giant hamster wheel, a walk in tornado, various water activities, exhibits to learn about the human body and many more. They were great fun to play with and helped to develop my scientific curiosity. We aimed to play with as many interactive exhibits as possible; my favourite was ‘startle’. This involved air suddenly spraying into your face, the reactions were recorded and played back in hilarious slow motion.

One of the latest exhibits, in the Zone, gives information on the science behind being a top athlete. It involves completing 5 challenges where you are set against an opponent. It was enjoyable and exciting, however, the only challenge I won was the final sprint finish! 

If you have seen the strange silver ball in Millennium Square, you may or may not know it is in fact a planetarium. You can take my word that it is much larger inside than it appears outside (Bristol’s Tardis) with a majestic screen spreading over the top of the sphere. We were transported from a view of the sky affected by light pollution to an astonishing view of the sky from a nearby countryside area. Just by listening to the audience’s ‘ooo’ and ‘ahh’ it was clear that everyone found the view spectacular. The autumn constellations were shown and a fantastic Astronomer, Lee, described the constellations and their associated Greek myths. This experience was breath-taking and is something I would highly recommend. I even recognised some constellation patterns and can now show off as I know the names and stories. 

The adult-only nights are great fun and enable you to experience the thrills of science through interactive exhibits, talks and demonstrations. The next adult only night is on Monday 9th December so keep an eye out for it.

Lip locking, tonsil tennis and infectious mononucleosis: stop smooching?

by Chloe Palmer 

Infectious mononucleosis (IM), more commonly known as glandular fever or ‘the kissing disease’ is an extremely contagious viral disease predominantly caused by the Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV).  Sprunt and Evans in the Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first described IM in 1920, however the association between this and EBV was not defined until the late 1960’s. EBV is a type of Herpes virus (Human Herpes Virus-4) containing double-stranded DNA, an icosahedral capsid and a glycoprotein-containing envelope. IM is spread via saliva, and just like all Herpes viruses they become a life companion…or not. The virus has an initial incubation period so an individual may be unaware that they are infected until 4-8 weeks later.  By this point, however, you can be sure that your oropharangeal epithelial cells and B-lymphocytes have taken a massive beating.

IM primarily and most commonly affects teenagers and young adults between the ages of 15-25, probably because school socials and university are saliva-swapping playgrounds (unless you do a science degree in which case you probably don’t get out as much). Initially this sub-clinical infection is asymptomatic but as it progresses characteristic symptoms include a sore throat, fatigue, prolonged malaise, swollen lymph nodes, vomiting, muscle and headaches high fever, a lack of energy and a loss of appetite. Diagnosis may be clear from the symptoms but this can be confirmed by a blood test.

Although both mortality and morbidity rates are low, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) serologic tests have shown that approximately 95% of adults worldwide have been infected with EBV.

There is currently no available treatment for this viral infection, however an EBV vaccine is currently in clinical trials, targeting its envelope glycoproteins (gp350/220). Not only will this be a break-through in preventing IM but also decrease the risk of other associated EBV infections such as Burkitt’s lymphoma and nasopharangeal carcinoma. For now pain relief pills...yes, the same ibuprofen that matron gave you at school may be ‘prescribed’ but as any G.C.S.E science student could inform you, antibiotics would have no effect (bar an unwanted red rash) since this is not a bacterial disease. The question still remains when to vaccinate individuals: pre-infection, post-infection or therapeutically, not aided by the fact that EBV expresses different proteins during its lytic and latent phases.

Who says you need air and sunlight to live?

Scientists find life thriving in the hostile oceanic layers of the Earth’s crust

by Daisy Dunne

Scientists studying the activity of the “dark biosphere”, the portion of the Earth shrouded in both darkness and mystery, have revealed how tiny organisms called microbes can obtain the energy required for life directly from their rocky surroundings of the oceanic crust - the layer of rock found covering the Earth directly beneath the sea. Life found deep within the oceanic crust of the Earth has the potential to make up the biggest ecosystem, a functioning unit considering all living organisms as well as their physical environment, the world has ever seen. This is due to the fact that 60% of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceanic crust. This new discovery poses a great challenge to pre-existing views concerning the normal conditions of life, which are based on the theory that energy is fixed by plants from sunlight and passed from organism to organism through a food chain. In contrast, scientists have shown how an astounding number of organisms can exploit energy from the natural reaction of infiltrating sea water with the inorganic (non-living) substances found in the rocky crust.

Why is this new revelation so important? Finding a thriving community of organisms living independently of sunlight and oxygen strengthens the idea that there may indeed be life on other planets. Similar life forms to such microorganisms could potentially exist be deriving energy in the absence of appropriate light from rocky deposits found in their own planet’s constitution. One of the microbiologists behind the paper, Dr Mark Lever, hopes his findings will contribute to our understanding of extra-terrestrial life. He suggests, "I think it's quite likely there is similar life on other planets. On Mars, even though we don't have oxygen, we have rocks there that are iron-rich. It's feasible that similar reactions could be occurring on other planets and perhaps in the deep subsurface of these planets." This research opens a whole new door to the possibilities of life in hostile but mineral-rich environments, both on Earth and on other planets, that were previously disregarded as unsuitable to sustaining life.    

Scientific paper: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/339/6125/1305

Have you got a science breakthrough you could present in 3 minutes? This is your chance!

Photo Credits: Falling Walls Lab winner 2012, Thomas Rippel, copyright Falling Walls Lab

A.T. Kearney London invites students, scientists, and innovators to share their research and entrepreneurial ideas at the Falling Walls Lab in London on 20th September 2013. 

The Concept

The Falling Walls Lab offers young academics, professionals, and entrepreneurs a high profile platform to showcase their innovative research to a panel of luminaries from the worlds of academia, research, and business.

The winners of the London Lab will be offered the chance to take part in the final Falling Walls Lab in Berlin, where they will share their innovative ideas with 100 finalists from around the globe. Winners also receive a complimentary entrance to The Falling Walls Conference, the International Conference on Future Breakthroughs in Science and Society.

Last year’s keynote speakers included Chancellor Angela Merkel and other prestigious members.

The catch? You only have three minutes to pitch your idea to the panel - "Dragon’s Den"-style.

Background

The Falling Walls Lab was launched in 2011, a collaboration between The Falling Walls Foundation and A.T. Kearney, to give young scientists and professionals a global platform for their innovative ideas.

Following the successful kick-off in Berlin, the challenging, fast-paced format was expanded to a number of international cities in 2013.

Who Can Apply?

Master students or PhD candidates, young professionals, scientists, or entrepreneurs from all disciplines, under the age of 35, are invited to apply. The Lab is open for participants from all countries. Willing participants will apply their idea and if successful, present at the Falling Walls Lab in London. 

Prize

Being part of the London Lab gives you a high level networking platform, an opportunity to engage and exchange with key decision-makers and like-minded innovators, and a chance to represent your institution on a global stage.

The winners of the qualifying London Lab will be given the opportunity to present their research at the final Falling Walls Lab in Berlin where they will share their winning ideas with 100 finalists from all over the globe.

The prize includes a ticket for the Falling Walls Conference, the International Conference on Future Breakthroughs in Science and Society. Your travel and accommodation costs to Berlin from 8-9th November 2013 will be covered. 

When and where?

When
20 September 2013
Starts 1:30 p.m. 

Where
The Westbury Hotel
Bond Street, Mayfair
London 

Application Deadline
21 August 2013

Click here to apply

Synapse Issue 5

Synapse issue 5 is here! You can find print copies of the magazine all over The University of Bristol campus.

Cross-dressing in the Animal Kingdom

by Dan Titmuss

"How cross-dressing helps male members of the animal kingdom find that lucky lady"

Ok, sneaky mating sounds kind of wrong; I get that, but it really is the best way to describe some of the tactics found in the animal kingdom. Let’s say you are dancing over to a lovely lady in a bar, only to find she is boogying on down with a massive good looking male. How on earth is one meant to get through to the beautiful maiden? Perhaps take some pointers from the animal kingdom.

For example, if you were a scorpionfly (Hylobittacus apicalis), the only logical explanation would be to make yourself look like a female. Bizarre answer you say? Larger males of the species catch beetles and give them as gifts to females in return for sex; however, catching these bugs is quite hard, especially for the smaller members of the species, and their gifts are often taken by larger scorpionflies anyway. These weaker males masquerade as females in order to steal gifts to give to females, allowing them to mate without the tricky process of catching and keeping the bugs. 

Meanwhile, in South Australia, the giant cuttlefish (Sepia apama) is trying a different tactic. Large males defend their chosen mate against other males, who also want to mate with her. This tactic would be a bad move for smaller males who can’t win a fight with males that are large and aggressive. The cuttlefish is famous for having an amazing ability to change colour by rapidly changing the physiology of specialized colour-changing cells in organs called chromatophores. This ‘chameleon-like’ ability can be used for social interaction, camouflage and to act as a warning to predators; however, the smaller males use this skill in a different way. Upon seeing a large male with a good-looking mate, they change the colour and texture of their skin to look like a female. The ‘in-drag’ male then swims up to the pair - its disguise allowing it to sneak past the larger male who presumably thinks himself lucky that he has two mates fighting over him - and mates with the female. This tactic is remarkably successful.

Some stag beetles (family Lucanidae) employ similar tactics. Some of the male stag beetles are born to look like female beetles, often producing pheromones to convince other males that they are fit, female mates. There have even been some reports of these beetles actually mating with other males in order to get the rival’s ‘seed’ out of the way, leaving the sneaky beetles to mate with prospective females.

But it’s not all about sex is it? Can’t we just have a cuddle at night to keep warm? Of course we can. In Canada, garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis) hibernate over winter. According to zoologist Robert Mason, “they’re cold to the bone” when they emerge in spring. What is the answer to getting warm? Some males actually pretend to be females so that males come to warm them up over the first few days after awakening from hibernation. I think I might give some of this a go!

*Cross-dressing in the Animal Kingdom appeared in Issue 1 of Synapse

Diamond Origins

As you pass a jewellery store in town you may notice the large number of diamonds displayed in the shop window ready to grab the attention of the numerous loved up couples. Recently in Geneva a colourless, pear-shaped, 101 carat diamond sold for a world record auction price of $26.7 million. This is just over £17million. So what makes diamonds so special? Diamonds consist of a lattice of carbon atoms and it requires large amounts of pressure and extremely high temperatures to transform carbon into diamond. This high pressure and heat can be found in the Earth’s mantle where diamonds are formed. So how do we manage to get our hands on them? Well, diamonds are brought to the surface of Earth by powerful magma eruptions. These are found by mining in the form of rough crystallised stones and then need to be cut to make jewels. Rough diamonds are cleaved, sawed, cut and polished to form the diamonds we see in shop windows. The price is determined by the cut, clarity, weight (carat) and colour. Clever marketing is then what helps make these gems so desirable. So what is so special about diamonds? Well it is a tiny bit of sparkle formed under the surface of the Earth which undergoes a long journey to get under the surface of our hearts.

Diamonds found on the Earth's surface will have come from the mantle or outer space!

Weird and Wonderful: Hidden Horrors

Check out these awesome images of tiny creatures under the microscope.

----- Hydrothermal worm -----

----- Maggot -----

----- Swollen tick -----

----- Wasp -----

----- Caterpillar -----