tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9374956366974295842024-02-19T05:05:56.724+00:00Synapse Science MagazineThe University of Bristol's popular science magazineSynapse Science Magazinehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02164879102603211850noreply@blogger.comBlogger159125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-82525020441136006142016-03-18T17:30:00.004+00:002016-03-18T17:31:40.981+00:00Flight of the Dragonfly <div class="MsoNormal">
<i>By Rachel Baxter</i></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwZxVKb5O9RjgL5rRENJRckS7ofIr7BudN3mrcBN8UlpyDtFtqRFXS9QQHMkh6jhBn03VCF5AK27wKkwDtlD9rHVj5n8j9wo5gqD4FoZeeRtlHd2MGMkK6l9GcfJrXERmcI53XMAkpO7Y/s1600/Pantala_flavescens_at_Kadavoor.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwZxVKb5O9RjgL5rRENJRckS7ofIr7BudN3mrcBN8UlpyDtFtqRFXS9QQHMkh6jhBn03VCF5AK27wKkwDtlD9rHVj5n8j9wo5gqD4FoZeeRtlHd2MGMkK6l9GcfJrXERmcI53XMAkpO7Y/s320/Pantala_flavescens_at_Kadavoor.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">"Pantal flavescens at Kavadoor"
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Commonly known as the “globe skimmer”, it is no surprise
that <i>Pantala flavescens</i>, a unique
species of dragonfly, can travel long distances. Despite being less than 2
inches long, these tiny insects have the ability to fly across oceans, making
some of the greatest migratory journeys on Earth.</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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However, only recently have scientists had an insight into
just how often these voyages are occurring. A recent study, by biologists at
Rutgers University, published in the journal PLOS One, has shown that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pantala</i> dragonflies all over the world
are genetically very similar. This is unusual in nature, as geographically
segregated populations of the same species tend to vary genetically to some
extent. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Jessica Ware, one of the paper’s authors, explains, <span lang="EN-US" style="color: #262626; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">"If North American <i>Pantala</i> only bred with
North American <i>Pantala</i>, and Japanese <i>Pantala</i> only bred with
Japanese <i>Pantala</i>, we would expect to see that in genetic results that
differed from each other.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Nevertheless, in the case of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pantala</i> dragonfly, highly similar genetic profiles have been found
in individuals across the world, ranging from the USA and South America, to
Japan, India and Korea. The fact that they seem to share one common global gene
pool suggests that individuals from different continents are not only
interbreeding, but doing so on a regular basis. This would mean that they are
travelling around the world annually, if not more often. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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The purpose of the vast migrations of these dragonflies is
simple; they follow the weather, allowing them to reproduce in the ideal
environment. For example, when the dry season hits India, they will move across
to Africa for the wet season, as they require moisture to breed. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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So, how do they do it? <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pantala</i>
dragonflies have specialised wings that are perfectly adapted to long-distance
travel, with minimum energy expenditure. They have relatively large wings that
enable them to fly high up in the air, and glide in the wind. This mechanism is
what allows them to cross entire oceans, and is referred to as “passive
dispersal”, as they rely on the wind to do most of the work for them. Furthermore,
as they are so small, weight is not a problem. <o:p></o:p></div>
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However, their size does cause a problem to the scientists
studying them. Genetic analyses were used in the recent study because the
dragonflies are too small for researchers to attach GPS trackers or tagging
equipment to them. The weight of any existing technologies would be too
overpowering, reducing their abilities to fly. Therefore, scientists thus far
have no way of tracking the exact routes of the dragonflies, to assess exactly
how long they are travelling for and where exactly they are travelling to and
from. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Perhaps future technologies will provide trackers light enough
to attach to the back of the minute dragonflies, allowing scientists to unlock
further information about them. Until then, many key details of one of the
greatest migrations on the planet will remain a mystery. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-42893981932488729242015-12-23T16:50:00.000+00:002015-12-23T16:50:07.014+00:00Artificial Intelligence: what does the future hold? <i>By Sam Firminger </i><br />
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(Contains <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">‘2001: A
Space Odyssey’</i> spoilers)<o:p></o:p></div>
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“I’m sorry Dave, I’m afraid I can’t do that.”<o:p></o:p></div>
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This memorable line from the Stanley Kubrick film <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">2001: A Space Odyssey</i>, comes from a
super-fast sentient computer called HAL 9000 (Heuristically programmed ALgorithmic
computer) on board a spaceship travelling to Jupiter. It was programmed to look
after its crew and ensure the success of the mission. However, after discovering
the human crew intend to shut it down, it decides to silently kill one of the astronauts.
After Dave attempts a rescue, HAL calmly tells him that he is unable to open
the ship’s doors to dock, effectively trying to kill him too. A single,
unwavering red eye stares down Dave meanwhile shutting off the life support of
the remaining crew members. <o:p></o:p></div>
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It’s partly thanks to films like this that the possibility
of artificial intelligence turning against us is solidified in the public
conscience. It’s not alone; numerous other high profile media forms portray the
possibility of this dystopian future; the famous Skynet system from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Terminator </i>series, the Machines from the
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Matrix</i> trilogy, and GLaDOS from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Portal </i>games to name a few. <o:p></o:p></div>
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However, the idea of a creation intended for good turning on
its creator can be traced back further than big Hollywood blockbusters.
Literature is littered with stories of accidental monsters. The creation of
Satan himself in Christianity was the result of an angel gone wrong. Frankenstein’s
monster in the novel by Mary Shelley in 1818, one of the first science fiction
books, is another classic example. The thought of malevolent, uncontrollable
artificial intelligence is a terrifying and common one, but how likely is it?<o:p></o:p></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><b>Ethics of AI<o:p></o:p></b></i></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></div>
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Perhaps it would be wise to start with the question of how
artificial intelligence should be programmed. One of the first tentative ideas
comes from the Three Laws of Robotics written up by the sci-fi author Isaac
Asimov over 7 decades ago in 1942. These are a set of rules by which robots are
created within novels of his. They state that no robot shall harm or kill a
human being directly or indirectly, that the robot must obey human orders, and
finally that the robot should protect its own existence as long as it does not
conflict with the previous two laws. Though these seem practical and that they
could be implemented from an outsider’s perspective, these were originally only
ever intended to be a literary tool by which to create dynamic sci-fi novels, and
were not created by a scientist with knowledge of AI.<o:p></o:p></div>
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It’s worth noting that when ethics of AI are discussed, it
is the ethics of robots or humanoid robots that people tend to think of immediately.
Although there is huge investment in humanoid robotics, AI are far more
prevalent in other fields that you might not expect, such as targeted Facebook
ads and data mining from metadata collection by governments. Ethical frameworks
of purely physical harm or death to humans are useless in situations like this
and if talking about other types of harm such as breach of privacy, it is
difficult to decide what is constitutes ‘harm’ and what does not. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><b>AI of the future</b><o:p></o:p></i></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><b><br /></b></i></div>
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The future generation of AI however lies in a process called
machine learning. This is where AI is able to look at a set of data, learn from
it and use that knowledge to change its future actions without being explicitly
programmed to do so. The AI teaches itself. This allows the program to become
more sophisticated and develop as time goes on as it experiences more data
input. There are many examples of this already in the tech world, including
speech recognition software, self-driving cars, the use of data mining to give
personalized ads, personal assistants like <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cortana</i>
(Microsoft) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Siri</i> (Apple) and even
Netflix movie recommendations. It’s on the rise too; deep learning, a branch of
machine learning, has seen a huge rise in interest in recent years. Deep
learning is the ability to look at hundreds of examples of data and make
accurate predictions in new situations, much like how a biological neural
network functions. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica;">This</span>
boom in development of machine learning brings the debate back to ethical framework
for development of AI. Should we be scared of AI being capable of teaching
itself? It’s possible that over generations, an AI program will be able to
improve more efficiently than natural evolution would allow. It would not only
be able to improve from generation to generation, it would also be able to
specifically design what the next generation of program should look like in
addition to speeding up the rate of change. This would be a process not limited
by biological factors. This runaway process could eventually end up in a program
many times more intelligent than a human, given enough computing power.<o:p></o:p></div>
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It’s for reasons like this that some of greatest minds alive
today have warned against machine learning AI. Professor Stephen Hawking has
said: “The development of full artificial intelligence could spell the end of
the human race.”<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica;"> Elon Musk, CEO of
Tesla and SpaceX has echoed similar sentiments. He said; “I think we should be
very careful about artificial intelligence. If I had to guess at what our
biggest existential threat is, it’s probably that.” He even said rogue AI is
more dangerous than nuclear attack. It’s clearly a pretty big issue that
demands action.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 13.5pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><b>The ethics of
future AI</b></span></i><o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 13.5pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="background-color: transparent;">With the rapid recent development of machine learning, it
seems certain safeguards are essential and need to be put into place. Along
with other tech giants, Elon Musk has taken it upon himself to start this
process. On December 11</span><sup style="background-color: transparent;">th</sup><span style="background-color: transparent;"> 2015 they pledged $1b and started up a
non-profit organisation called OpenAI. Their goal as stated is to: “advance
digital intelligence in the way that is most likely to benefit humanity as a
whole, unconstrained by a need to generate financial return.” They have also
pledged to share the data with AI firms, and open-source the data to make sure
the whole sector is on the same page.</span></div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It seems OpenAI is the first step in creating a universal
ethical code for future AI projects. By providing its data for all to use, it
will ensure that not one company becomes too powerful or dominates the market.
In a blogpost they said: “We believe AI should be an extension of individual
human wills and, in the spirit of liberty, as broadly and evenly distributed as
possible.” Their aim is to unite AI into a ‘common intelligence’. Up to now,
projects from different companies for different tasks have been kept data to
themselves but OpenAI want to unite and encourage the sharing of intelligence
to create something different. They want to share the huge value in data sets
between other companies. The emphasis on OpenAI to be independent of financial
return ensures that whoever has to ‘prioritize the outcome’ of AI is not doing
so for selfish financial gain.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><b>Future AI and
open-source data</b><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The question one may then ask is what incentive is there for
companies to share any data at all? Google has recently announced open-sourcing
of its machine learning algorithms for its AI library TensorFlow, in the hope
that knowledgeable outsiders can access their algorithms and improve them – a
‘I’ll scratch your back if you scratch mine’ situation. They’re not alone;
Facebook and Microsoft have also announced open-sourcing of their AI hardware
and software.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It seems the future of AI is in cooperation and continual
open-sourcing of data from the likes of Google, Facebook, Microsoft and OpenAI.
It’s in this way that dystopian futures of rogue AI can be avoided. Perhaps instead
we’ll be seeing extremely advanced but sarcastic robots in the near future, of
the likes of TARS from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Interstellar</i>,
floating around the International Space Station. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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Links to the more information about the ideas discussed can
be found below:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Example of machine learning <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/350/6266/1332.abstract">http://www.sciencemag.org/content/350/6266/1332.abstract</a><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
OpenAI blog <a href="https://openai.com/blog/introducing-openai/">https://openai.com/blog/introducing-openai/</a><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ethics of Robotic Intelligence regarding Lethal Autonomous
weapons <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/robotics-ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-1.17611">http://www.nature.com/news/robotics-ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-1.17611</a><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Benefits of open-sourcing machine learning algorithms <a href="http://www.wired.com/2015/11/google-open-sources-its-artificial-intelligence-engine/">http://www.wired.com/2015/11/google-open-sources-its-artificial-intelligence-engine/</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-87389061917450428472015-12-20T16:51:00.000+00:002015-12-21T14:01:14.103+00:00What Came First, Sponges or the Comb Jellies? <div class="MsoNormal">
<i><br /></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>By Sam Firminger</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The well-known chicken or the egg conundrum first posed by classical
philosophers such as the likes of Aristotle asks a simple biological question.
Reduced down to its very essence, it’s a concept often applied in the field of
phylogenetics. Here, a range of tools available to biologists are used to study
the evolutionary history and relationships of the entire biological scale, from
genes to species and phyla. In the past, these tools utilised mainly
morphological data but with recent progressions in gene sequencing and
evolutionary modelling, genetic data is swiftly changing the landscape of
phylogenetics. With this advent of new technologies, the phylogeny of the early
complex multicellular organisms, the basal Metazoans (more widely known as the
kingdom of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Animalia</i> or Animals) has
been turned on its head with contentious results being presented to the
scientific community. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Basal Metazoans<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Cambrian Period (541 to 485.5 Mya) is well known for the
‘Cambrian explosion’, a remarkable event that encompassed the explosive
radiation of organisms into most of the animal phyla we know and love today. Immediately
predating this period however, is the Ediacaran, also commonly referred to as
the Vendian (635-542 Mya). Fossil records have shown that this is actually when
soft-bodied organisms first appeared on Earth. It is here that the Porifera (Sponges),
Ctenophores (Comb jellies), Cnidarians (Jellyfish and corals) and Placozoans
first emerged in the murky depths of the ancient oceans. Ctenophores could
easily be mistaken for jellyfish with their layered, jelly-like bodies but instead
move by the movement of ‘combs’, or cilia, running along the body. They also
lack the stinging cells which Jellyfish are famous for. Species found at depth can
often be seen to have wonderfully striking multi-coloured LED-like ripples
along their bodies, caused by scattering of light through the moving combs. Similarly,
most (but not all) Ctenophora species are capable of using proteins that cause
bioluminescence: you may well have seen these curious creatures in a
documentary or two.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Conflicting Phylogenies</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The traditional phylogeny of these taxa places the Porifera
as the most basal group, with the rest splitting off from this lineage and
evolving later. This is probably the view a layman would also adopt, simply by
looking at the organisms. Sponges are sessile and look relatively simple, even
plant-like, due to the lack of any features that you might typically associate
associates with animals, such as limbs, eyes or muscles. However, multiple academic
groups in recent years have challenged this view using transcriptome data (sequenced
data from all types of RNA found in a cell). They suggest that it was actually the
Ctenophores which evolved first, placing them as a sister group and the most
distant to all known animals. This controversial view of the evolutionary
history of these animals immediately sent ripples through the scientific
community, as it went against all previous textbooks and published papers,
including a 2014 paper published in the highly revered <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nature</i> journal. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If one is to run with this hypothesis then there are some
things that need explaining. Ctenophores have relatively complex epithelial
nerve nets, along with muscles and a gut. These characteristics are absent in
Porifera, suggesting that if the Ctenophores did in fact evolve first, there
would have had to have been a secondary loss of these features to a simpler
body plan found in the sponges, followed by another novel evolution of a
nervous system into those found in Cnidarians (Jellyfish). An alternative
explanation is that the Ctenophores evolved their nervous system independently
of the other phyla. However, this has been proven to be unlikely due to both
the Ctenophores and the Cnidarians having specific common features, including
neuronal fate patterning genes and the presence of vital components for
synaptic function. This provocative claim of the sponges no longer being viewed
as the ancestral phyla led to widespread questioning of whether it was time for
the history books to be rewritten, completely changing our understanding of
evolution as we know it. Are they right?<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Recent Research<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A team at the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">University
of Bristol </i>led by Dr Davide Pisani with colleagues from around the world
published a paper in December 2015 using genomic data to tackle these
controversial claims. The team used data sets from previous experiments
suggesting Ctenophore-early hypotheses and showed that the choice of evolutionary
models, which are run on data, is crucial for obtaining correct results, and in
previous papers these were inappropriately chosen. They discuss how the
previously used models had failed to take into account important biological
factors which affect the rate of change of genes such as the hydrophobicity of
bases. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Subsequent analyses by Dr Pisani
and his team using more appropriate models along with powerful statistical
methods lead to the conclusion that it was in fact the sponges which came
first, not the Ctenophores, which supports and reinforces the classically held
hypothesis: a sigh of relief for many scientists.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Dr Davide Pisani told the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">University of Bristol</i> press team: “Knowing whether sponges or comb
jellies came first is fundamental to our understanding of evolution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Take the nervous system for example; this is
the fundamental organ system that mediates our own perception of self.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is what makes us human, so is pretty
important!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Depending on whether sponges
or comb jellies came first underpins entirely different evolutionary histories
for this organ system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If comb jellies
came first, then the last common ancestor of all the animals might have had a
nervous system, and as all comb jellies are predators this ancestor might have
even been a predator.”<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
These results highlight the issue of revolutionary claims
that all too often surface in the scientific community. Upon closer inspection
with rigorous testing and analyses, they are not always what they seem. It begs
the use of proper methodology with thorough self-analysis before publishing a
paper. It seems as if the history books are safe, for now.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Dr Pisani’s paper can be found in full at: http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/11/24/1518127112.full.pdf<o:p></o:p></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-32120850097610609002015-12-14T17:28:00.001+00:002015-12-14T17:28:43.796+00:00Women in Science: Dr Georgina Meakin B<i>y Amy Newman</i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<span style="font-family: "calibri light";">Dr Georgina Meakin, a forensic
science researcher at University College London, recently came to give a guest
lecture at Bristol as part of a series of events run by the Women in Science
society. She spoke about her experience as a woman in forensic science, and
fascinated us with some examples of cases and pieces of her research along the
way.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: "calibri light"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Dr Meakin took a somewhat
unconventional route into her current career in forensics, choosing to return
to university to study for a Masters after already completing a PhD. Hearing
about the variety of jobs she’d had in the past was very reassuring that, just
as the careers service might tell you, there are many possibilities following
on from a science degree! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: "calibri light"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">She also spoke of the
#distractinglysexy trend that was sparked by the recent controversy surrounding
Nobel Prize winner Tim Hunt, and how forensic science isn’t as glamorous as TV
shows such as CSI might have us believe. The pictures she showed of the full
Personal Protective Equipment everyone in her lab has to wear definitely
brought home her point!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: "calibri light"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Dr Meakin’s work at UCL focuses
on “trace DNA”: DNA recovered from a crime scene that is present in tiny
amounts and of an unknown biological origin. Lab methods have advanced so far
that we are now able to gain reliable sequence profiles from just a few cells’
worth of DNA, which means a detectable bodily fluid doesn’t have to be present
to gain possible DNA evidence. However, as Dr Meakin explained, it can be hard
to determine whether such trace DNA found at a crime scene was actually from
one of the perpetrators, as DNA can be spread through actions such as coughing
as well as direct physical contact. Current work from her lab has even found
that, for example, if you were to shake someone’s hand and then they were to
use a knife in a crime, small traces of your DNA would probably be found on the
weapon!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: "calibri light"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">The talk was a great opportunity
to hear about a field of science I know I for one hadn’t really thought about
as a future option, and Dr Meakin’s enthusiasm both for forensics and promoting
women in science really shone through. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-11721556747773076442015-12-07T14:35:00.000+00:002015-12-07T14:35:36.200+00:00What are Chemists Doing to Fight Ebola? <div>
<br /></div>
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<div>
<i>By David Morris </i></div>
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Since the beginning of 2014, Western Africa has been
battling an outbreak of Ebola Haemorrhagic fever (EHF), or simply ‘Ebola’. The
epidemic caused by the Ebola virus has been largely contained, but the death
toll is still ascending into the tens of thousands. To understand what chemists
have been doing to exterminate the virus, some background knowledge of it is
required.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinMScKV_WU5lxD1G0qW4BOqosNnJ6bx9BjKP9e3KBYJsELe8AgOH8ITfT7dLuNgmI28AJdoAswneyE9hVoX1xG2GqdHm3uWIw0dlZQxTRhqG94-JAc6VbJ9wscmC_CsO2eUg5uggFbhp4/s1600/Screen+Shot+2015-12-07+at+14.32.34.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="272" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinMScKV_WU5lxD1G0qW4BOqosNnJ6bx9BjKP9e3KBYJsELe8AgOH8ITfT7dLuNgmI28AJdoAswneyE9hVoX1xG2GqdHm3uWIw0dlZQxTRhqG94-JAc6VbJ9wscmC_CsO2eUg5uggFbhp4/s640/Screen+Shot+2015-12-07+at+14.32.34.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">An electron micrograph of an Ebola virus </td></tr>
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<br /></div>
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The
Ebola virus is a filamentous virus comprised of a strand of genetic code known
as RNA, encapsulated by a protein membrane. It can survive in a multitude of
bodily fluids for up to several months, making inter-host transmission very feasible.
The fruit bat, native to parts of western Africa serves as a ‘natural
reservoir’ for the virus. This means the virus can survive and replicate within
a fruit bat without killing it, allowing it to thrive in countries where fruit
bats are prevalent. RNA acts as a code for the expression of specific proteins.
After the Ebola virus is introduced to the human body, it expresses a protein
that binds to human ‘interferons’. These are proteins that call for an immune
response when necessary. This binding stops the interferons calling for
antibodies to destroy the virus, rendering the immune system largely redundant.</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
exterior membrane of the virus presents pendant proteins called glycoproteins
to the surface of a healthy cell. The Ebola glycoprotein hijacks the
cholesterol influx receptors of healthy cells, dragging the virus into them.
This allows the virus easy access to the cell interior, where it is free to
replicate.</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Ebola
virus also expresses a disordered protein called VP24 that interacts strongly
with the collagen in the body. Collagen is responsible for separating
connective tissues and acting as a barrier to prevent unwanted materials
entering organs and tissues. When VP24 interacts with collagen, it can distort
the collagen until the collagen is denatured and useless. After this, there is
little else stopping blood pouring into organs and to the surface of the skin,
thus widespread internal and external bleeding occurs and causes fatal problems
in the body.<o:p></o:p></div>
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</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The many ways that the Ebola virus acts on the
body has given chemists just as many platforms from which it can be stopped. Upon
entering the body, the virus is very quick to shut down the immune system. The
body tries to respond by expressing a specific antibody to combat the virus. Scientists
have noticed this and developed an effective way to detect the rapid expression
of this antibody, making early diagnosis and recovery from the disease much
more likely.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="text-indent: 36pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="text-indent: 36pt;">Many contemporary EHF treatments
are derived from molecules that are very structurally similar to what the virus
uses in protein expression and replication. Sarepta Therapeutics have developed
a modified strand of RNA that, when deployed, the virus encounters in the body and
mistakes for its own genetic code during replication. Due to the modified code,
the daughter virus then goes on to express dysfunctional VP24 which can’t bind
to interferons properly, allowing them to signal the immune response to destroy
the virus. Similarly, Tekmira Pharmaceuticals have developed ‘small
interfering’ RNA drugs that the virus again mistakes for its own RNA. This
modified RNA prevents the daughter virus from being able to replicate itself at
all. Mapp Biopharmaceuticals developed ZMapp as a ‘cocktail’ of several antibodies
that have a high affinity to Ebola glycoprotein. The cell doesn’t mistake the
new glycoprotein-ZMapp structure for cholesterol upon binding and so isn’t
tricked into allowing the virus into the cell. As the virus cannot infect new
cells, it eventually perishes. These techniques have resulted in a plethora of
antiviral drugs that can be used to treat EHF</span><b style="text-indent: 36pt;">. </b><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">Applying these remedies in conjunction with one another increases
the likelihood of effective treatment exponentially as it stops the virus at several
points.</span></div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
These
types of drugs work well as they are very structurally similar to the actual
virus, such that they have a much higher affinity for the virus as opposed to
human cells. This allows the drug to selectively interrupt the virus’ processes
over bodily processes, and therefore limits the potential negative effects of
the drug on the patient. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Chemists
are currently developing methods for EHF drugs to be made in a quick, scalable
and economically viable fashion with few toxic impurities, so they can pass
through clinical trials and be used on scale. Ebola recovery is now becoming more
and more common. With the research effort the pharmaceutical industry is
pouring into fighting the Ebola virus, it is very realistic that the epidemic
will be exterminated and effectively controlled within the coming years.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-12231648381823904072015-11-08T15:17:00.003+00:002015-11-08T18:34:40.324+00:00The implications of finding a Dyson sphere<h1 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><i><br />
</i></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><i>By George Thomas</i></span></h1>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4ouligzgAGgBIhS-dhiLY1rbMnCSHfVnsxJ3o3aAEhko8MvSQ9e5xKOZp8WBkx91uGWfrKqhUVh20Bk3hhXeYFcELOrmyQ73oc-zxkPvakBOzLnBRMcr1YAWiZKqTbK9_v7hFZk1pDpM/s1600/900px-Dyson_Sphere_Diagram-en.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4ouligzgAGgBIhS-dhiLY1rbMnCSHfVnsxJ3o3aAEhko8MvSQ9e5xKOZp8WBkx91uGWfrKqhUVh20Bk3hhXeYFcELOrmyQ73oc-zxkPvakBOzLnBRMcr1YAWiZKqTbK9_v7hFZk1pDpM/s320/900px-Dyson_Sphere_Diagram-en.svg.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h1 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;">Many people will have recently heard of the potential discovery of an artefact of alien intelligence around the star </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;">KIC 8462852 (If you haven’t, read here for more info http://www.iflscience.com/have-we-really-discovered-huge-alien-megastructure-around-star). </span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;">Further recent study of the star has ruled this out as an option, but it was an interesting idea. With that said, I want to talk about the potential implications of intelligent, highly advanced, alien life existing in our Galaxy.</span></h1>
<h1 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The object that had been speculated as a potential sign of an advanced civilisation is called a ‘Dyson sphere’. Put simply, the idea is that you surround a star in a dome of solar panels to absorb the light energy emitted, to provide enough fuel to sustain your highly advanced alien race. However, surrounding the entire star in a dome isn’t very practical, for multiple reasons, but lots of spaced out satellites could work as a good alternative source for harnessing power. This concept is known as a ‘Dyson bubble’. The presence of a structure like this around KIC </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">8462852 would have </span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">explained the initial observations, but other explanations such as lots of comets are far more likely. <o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-3Tr-vxldRVd7E3znFVi1KFQzt_w6JfrUNm8fLxuWj9-Ezt9keP-4MOzzPG3zYI5_xhHW51denjL9_ihtvZRv21xscrhspq384pQA90hPN3EyGVLR2Uj-Rmas65sxlNTPt9WMt_OrK3A/s1600/Dyson_Bubble.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-3Tr-vxldRVd7E3znFVi1KFQzt_w6JfrUNm8fLxuWj9-Ezt9keP-4MOzzPG3zYI5_xhHW51denjL9_ihtvZRv21xscrhspq384pQA90hPN3EyGVLR2Uj-Rmas65sxlNTPt9WMt_OrK3A/s320/Dyson_Bubble.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Illustration of a Dyson Bubble<br />
Credit: Wikipedia</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br />
</span></div>
<h1 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;">A lot of news outlets had spoken about us potentially finding alien life, but what if there were aliens; would they have found us? Of course, we haven’t got a giant structure surrounding the Sun to give ourselves away, but one way we have been giving ourselves away is in how, at least for the last 100 years, we’ve been broadcasting radio waves across the Galaxy. Unfortunately the radio waves will have become so spread out in their travel that our signal will be indistinguishable from background noise beyond a few lightyears away. Also, in the case of KIC 8462852, the star is too far away (about 1500 lightyears) for our radio waves to have travelled to any potential life stationed there. Unless the species had spread out to stars much closer to our Sun, they wouldn’t have had time to pick up any signs of technology that we may be giving off.</span></h1>
<h1 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">There is, however, the Earth itself, which has been harbouring life for the last few billion years. Any intelligent beings looking out at the Galaxy with the technology to detect our pale blue dot will have been able to tell that we’re sitting very comfortably in the habitable zone around the Sun. This is especially true of any species capable of building a Dyson bubble, which begs the question: if there is an advanced civilisation relatively nearby, why haven’t they come to us?<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The answer, much to the dismay of sci-fi fans, is probably the restrictions of travel through space. Although there are various theories about using wormholes to avoid technically travelling from one point to another at speeds faster than light, the entirety of physics thus far points to a constant restriction: information cannot travel faster than the speed of light.<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></h1>
<h1 style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">This isn’t definitely the reason, though. An optimistic view could be that life is so overly abundant in the universe that no alien species has bothered to come to us yet. But, as said, this is very optimistic, and the inability to travel to our stellar neighbours in a time considered reasonable compared to the human life span is a far more likely reason. If they have found us, and can reach us, then they’re making an active choice not to engage with us, which would be a curious decision in itself.<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">This means that although we may in future discover advanced civilisations dotted around our </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">galaxy, </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">we may never be able to reach them. We may not be alone in the Universe, but we </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">may well be too </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">far away to ever see our neighbours.</span><br />
<o:p></o:p></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-64689474573185702702015-11-02T10:38:00.001+00:002015-11-02T10:39:10.919+00:00The Science of Taste<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<i>By David Morris</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNH3QCxqVyTM0aB0SJK40-3Y5Dey0eawZmupqAtU_29SHCiTJK7t2ikbWCf4t6izln4-DtydlTJRbIQwuIqor4mW4FuUNSGyJvsNLQZS_Lxqi5nLy2x6knQrLxgixZVON769PxGZWnU9I/s1600/842px-Taste_bud.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="270" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNH3QCxqVyTM0aB0SJK40-3Y5Dey0eawZmupqAtU_29SHCiTJK7t2ikbWCf4t6izln4-DtydlTJRbIQwuIqor4mW4FuUNSGyJvsNLQZS_Lxqi5nLy2x6knQrLxgixZVON769PxGZWnU9I/s320/842px-Taste_bud.svg.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Structure of a taste bud</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<span style="text-indent: 36pt;">In 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle
postulated that varying blends of two tastes, sweetness and bitterness,
comprised all flavours. As the understanding of taste developed, it was shown
that sourness and saltiness were also distinct tastes. In 1908 the Japanese
chemist, Kikunae Ikeda, discovered a fifth subtle and now well established
taste known as umami. Until recently, these tastes were universally accepted as
the five fundamental detectable tastes that made up all flavours that can be
experienced by humans.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="text-indent: 36pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="text-indent: 36pt;">The role of smell (olfaction) in
flavour wasn’t fully appreciated until as late as 2004, when biologists Richard
Axel and Linda Buck discovered the role of the nose in detecting and
characterising odours. When you breathe in through your nose, millions of
odorous molecules activate and inhibit olfactory receptors at the roof of the
nasal cavity. Electrical impulses travel from these receptors to the brain,
informing you of what you’re eating. This action is supported by taste buds in
the mouth.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="text-indent: 36pt;">Molecules within certain foods
can chemically activate senses that are responsible for the sensation of heat,
pain or touch. This is known as chemesthesis. Despite being different from
taste, chemesthesis can contribute to the flavour of a substance. Examples
include the ‘tingle’ on the tongue from ingestion of carbonated drinks, the
feeling of heat upon eating a chili pepper, and the cooling feeling from eating
gum.</span><br />
<span style="text-indent: 36pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 36pt;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgD5quKrkv8BzxbvREITIE4f_mZw8OpGFcze0mcbln63rgjw3w3cIcFJujRC8BZcEoyq6YKJoPevg92SIwBXZ-fjK5x0Pdd3GJYxjHKAiWWz40Uv1jT2Vf1qmFS-X5Uz0QB7Nf3mcanBGQ/s1600/Madame_Jeanette_and_other_chillies.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgD5quKrkv8BzxbvREITIE4f_mZw8OpGFcze0mcbln63rgjw3w3cIcFJujRC8BZcEoyq6YKJoPevg92SIwBXZ-fjK5x0Pdd3GJYxjHKAiWWz40Uv1jT2Vf1qmFS-X5Uz0QB7Nf3mcanBGQ/s320/Madame_Jeanette_and_other_chillies.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<span style="text-indent: 36pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="text-indent: 36pt;"><br /></span>
Taste
receptors are mounted on papillae, which are structures found on the front and
back of the tongue, the roof and sides of the mouth, and even at the back of
the mouth and throat. The idea of a ‘tongue map’ whereby certain areas of the
tongue detect certain tastes is a myth, although the concentration of certain
receptors may vary in different areas of the tongue.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="text-indent: 36pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="text-indent: 36pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">Saltiness and sourness are the
simplest of the tastes. Sourness arises from the donation of hydrogen ions, which
is a characteristic feature of acids. It has been postulated that detection of
sour foods defends the body from ailments like indigestion. Similarly,
saltiness arises from the dissociation of salt on the tongue, forming sodium
and potassium ions. The taste response acts as a warning for your body to
replenish electrolytes, but not too much, hence why we find salty foods
appealing, but also repulsive in large amounts.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bitterness,
umami and sweetness are more complicated tastes. They all come from the binding
of larger, more complex molecules to large proteins in the taste buds that are
typically responsible for signal transduction throughout the body. Bitterness
receptors can bind with molecules that are usually toxins or poisons. In this
way, the bitter taste warns your body against ingesting molecules that can harm
your body.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Similarly, umami
receptors detect glutamate (a component of monosodium glutamate, or MSG, a
popular salt substitute), giving off a subtle savoury taste. The subtlety
arises because the glutamate is usually bound to sodium, giving off a more
powerful salty taste. Glutamate is useful to your body as a neurotransmitter
and a catalyst to metabolism, so like salt, the taste warns your body to replenish
glutamate, but not excessively.<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOPAgwZMP8KSDuKGcbUxyzpHkyr8qzGE8qnURpmw4MxceGG3mfLOvh9exv9tCuQ7vRFpomN9KSRdntmecPAH5m9HWg9xPStH7ecJSf4jf2AZqvWNZ-EmDGmBEu-bkVIOMuLhZkr7IbPEA/s1600/Ripe_tomatoes.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOPAgwZMP8KSDuKGcbUxyzpHkyr8qzGE8qnURpmw4MxceGG3mfLOvh9exv9tCuQ7vRFpomN9KSRdntmecPAH5m9HWg9xPStH7ecJSf4jf2AZqvWNZ-EmDGmBEu-bkVIOMuLhZkr7IbPEA/s320/Ripe_tomatoes.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tomatoes are rich in umami</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"></span> In
July of this year, academics at the University of Purdue published a paper in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Chemical Senses</i> describing the existence
of a sixth taste called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">oleogustus</i>.
Usually, when the body ingests oil or fat, it is in the form of triglyceride, a
molecule comprised of three fatty acids chemically bound through a glycerol
molecule. This triglyceride is too large to fit into oleogustus receptors and
thus can’t be tasted. However, when the fat spoils, the triglyceride is broken
down into glycerol and the fatty acids. The fatty acid then binds to the
oleogustus receptors and acts as a warning that the food is no longer suitable
for ingestion, hence it smells and tastes rancid.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Each
of the aforementioned tastes, as well as the olfactory and chemesthetic systems,
have proven essential for the body to be able to consume the correct amount of
different types of food, and to protect from ingesting harmful toxins and
poisons.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment-->Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-51492215773268887872015-10-30T11:34:00.000+00:002015-11-02T10:22:36.307+00:00At-Bristol's New Planetarium!<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>By Laura Rogers</i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<i><br /></i></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhShwwVGpUNLWn3xOL_nzvDhWcQz9eIAUBDCECQp_3atgunp5w9TmqsAL_s_lwFF_ni0bgEKKx8nGCKMfhmZa7mObYa7eQQQRxHT3c-VVPBiF3Nf4kS2xkYsZUEL6eNfPmnPXKAMmapPIg/s1600/photo+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhShwwVGpUNLWn3xOL_nzvDhWcQz9eIAUBDCECQp_3atgunp5w9TmqsAL_s_lwFF_ni0bgEKKx8nGCKMfhmZa7mObYa7eQQQRxHT3c-VVPBiF3Nf4kS2xkYsZUEL6eNfPmnPXKAMmapPIg/s320/photo+2.jpg" width="240" /></a></div>
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</div>
At-Bristol has recently undergone a million pound re-vamp of
its planetarium, and I was lucky enough to attend one of their 3D shows.</div>
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<br /></div>
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As the show began, we were told about the extent of the
upgrade, and were soon launched from the Earth, with our first view being of
the Earth from space. Considering the fact that I get travel sick, so would
prefer not to be launched into actual space, this was the closest I will ever
be to seeing the earth from above our atmosphere. It was a breath-taking moment,
as the three dimensional effects of the planetarium made it feel so real. You
could hear the “ahhhh” of the audience as we all stared in amazement.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
We then began virtually exploring the solar system, learning
about each planet in turn; from being educated about Jupiter’s moons, to the
atmosphere of Venus. I had not realised quite how toxic Venus’ atmosphere was,
and if we were to actually have landed on the surface, rather than virtually
doing so, we would be dead within seconds! However, what was most impressive
was that all the comparisons shown were to scale and any incredible figures
used were well backed up. <span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:user" datetime="2015-10-28T21:48"><o:p></o:p></ins></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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The show not only provided entertainment and spectacular
views, but was an educational experience, and is something that I would highly
recommend to anyone.<br />
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<br /></div>
<o:p></o:p></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-64227073515879151262015-10-26T13:26:00.001+00:002015-10-26T13:26:22.887+00:00Earth's Larger Cousin <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<i>By David Morris </i></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEia4y86wgnYgG37D6hgqix5ibbBJKGfdOSRS8G7iRlrdWn2lclpF-ClxpTahx5y3dIKjTKx_oibmPBQqTYgY-jw_nFzOO_JhYTp0ppyJbot9UvXbwBNOpHdFjaig4jHO_xarxQ8lrZr1Pg/s1600/Kepler186f-ArtistConcept-20140417.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEia4y86wgnYgG37D6hgqix5ibbBJKGfdOSRS8G7iRlrdWn2lclpF-ClxpTahx5y3dIKjTKx_oibmPBQqTYgY-jw_nFzOO_JhYTp0ppyJbot9UvXbwBNOpHdFjaig4jHO_xarxQ8lrZr1Pg/s320/Kepler186f-ArtistConcept-20140417.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="text-indent: 36pt;">In March last year, following
three years of data accumulation and analysis, NASA disclosed the discovery of
an exoplanet (a planet from outside our solar system) that shares enough
characteristics with the Earth that it could potentially harbour life,
Kepler-186f. Discovered by the Kepler space observatory, the body has a volume
of approximately 1.48 x 10</span><sup style="text-indent: 36pt;">21</sup><span style="text-indent: 36pt;"> m</span><sup style="text-indent: 36pt;">3</sup><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">, just about 10% larger
than Earth. Interestingly, the exoplanet is believed to show very little
obliquity, the degree to which the axis of rotation of a mass tilts away from
its plane of orbit. This means that it experiences minimal differences in seasonal
weather. It is of comparable age to the Earth, is located roughly 490 light
years away and can be found in the constellation Cygnus.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVh-qKf9KhT9r27Xw2joUE2V6zPxgpsA8FH2gHbozSpPSMsNBcB5mIkly9Gy2RVR4MJ6JRkh2x7w97Qoc1dtfynpAoxakr_ZYUo6zO9yv_TCvGxYRoMjHx4yzge4z574fwQ0z7fhQB3Yk/s1600/Exoplanet_Comparison_Kepler-186_f.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="147" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVh-qKf9KhT9r27Xw2joUE2V6zPxgpsA8FH2gHbozSpPSMsNBcB5mIkly9Gy2RVR4MJ6JRkh2x7w97Qoc1dtfynpAoxakr_ZYUo6zO9yv_TCvGxYRoMjHx4yzge4z574fwQ0z7fhQB3Yk/s320/Exoplanet_Comparison_Kepler-186_f.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="text-indent: 36pt;">Kepler-186f is the first planet
outside of our solar system discovered to have both a comparable size to the Earth
and to be within the ‘habitable zone’ of its parent star. The habitable zone of
a star is the range of distances from it where, given sufficient atmospheric
pressure, any present water will be a liquid: a characteristic that is
absolutely vital for the existence of life. Many exoplanets have this characteristic,
but they are all at least 40 % larger than Earth, making them too dense to
sustain life. This is the case for the other four exoplanets that Kepler-186f
shares its solar system with. Their large masses draw them closer to their
parent star due to gravity, making them too hot and therefore uninhabitable.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6DGVmurMEnf2weU8HQMi4KwC2a1alIJAfPwn3L2AlHD_q25WalQiuMMexFYbRbM2zVRBQBxxtaYUb63ULv2SOdEsbsrivvxj0c65zviAY2f3yjbxs_0HeLaYz8I5ArHjb7BekeO_z3n4/s1600/Kepler186f-ComparisonGraphic-20140417_improved.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6DGVmurMEnf2weU8HQMi4KwC2a1alIJAfPwn3L2AlHD_q25WalQiuMMexFYbRbM2zVRBQBxxtaYUb63ULv2SOdEsbsrivvxj0c65zviAY2f3yjbxs_0HeLaYz8I5ArHjb7BekeO_z3n4/s320/Kepler186f-ComparisonGraphic-20140417_improved.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="text-indent: 36pt;">Kepler-186f orbits Kepler-186, a
star half the size of our Sun. This star is known as a red dwarf, a star cooler
and smaller than that of the Sun. Kepler-186f receives roughly a third of the heat
energy that Earth receives, making it much less able to support life. The masses
of red dwarves are generally so small that orbiting planets are likely to go
into tidal locking. This process is caused by the gravitational pull of a mass
on an orbiting body, compelling it to rotate at roughly the same rate as it
orbits. This means that the same hemisphere is always facing the mass, as is
the case for Pluto and one of its moons, Charon. This effect is also employed
in getting artificial satellites to orbit the Earth correctly. Tidal locking
would cause one side of the planet to be in constant ‘night-mode’ and the other
in constant ‘daylight’, resulting in enormous temperature variations and
therefore varying phases of atmospheric substances like water. Without a
mechanism for swift planetary heat distribution, such as oceans, the planet
would be uninhabitable. There is an approximately 50 % chance that Kepler-186f
is orbiting its parent star with partial tidal locking. As a result of this, a
single rotation of the exoplanet about its axis could take up to weeks or
months, contributing to the prevalence of the aforementioned planetary temperature
differences.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2X09ipR_Lp0k-xLgKY4Wtxh5THFcl7dx5F-MBzhOqsyNca8vHa5q5bpK1mxjXBdvkrK7iFUZr_GmZB3rFpiGkIGn3I5CCesfVluEJhxKsNiTP0MM48ABgs5RZgufzcg6Yzzj_Qd4Xvz4/s1600/KeplerExoplanets-NearEarthSize-HabitableZone-20150106.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="215" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2X09ipR_Lp0k-xLgKY4Wtxh5THFcl7dx5F-MBzhOqsyNca8vHa5q5bpK1mxjXBdvkrK7iFUZr_GmZB3rFpiGkIGn3I5CCesfVluEJhxKsNiTP0MM48ABgs5RZgufzcg6Yzzj_Qd4Xvz4/s320/KeplerExoplanets-NearEarthSize-HabitableZone-20150106.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="text-indent: 36pt;">There are a wide range of atmospheric
densities and temperatures that the exoplanet could support depending on its
chemical composition. The greenhouse gases that keep a planet hot could be
present in any number of concentrations, maintaining a specific surface
temperature. The age of the red dwarf is also important as it will emit
differing amounts of various types of radiation depending on its age. For
example, if the red dwarf emits high levels of high-energy, ultraviolet
radiation, as is prevalent in young red dwarves, the energy supplied could
cause lighter elements like hydrogen and helium to escape the gravitational
pull of the exoplanet, removing mass from its surface.</span></div>
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Given the information NASA has
gathered, it is possible that Kepler-186f could support life. However, in order
to fully determine its capabilities, the surface composition of the exoplanet
needs to be examined further. Exoplanetary surface composition is very
difficult information to obtain, especially for a body so far away. This is one
of the many tasks that NASA is constructing the James Webb Space Telescope for,
due to launch in October 2018. The telescope has been under construction since
the beginning of 2011 and is planned to be sent to the L2 Lagrange point, 1.5
million kilometres from Earth, the furthest from the Earth that any man-made
device has ever been sent. Consequently, the question as to whether other life
outside our solar system exists may be answered within the coming years.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-73049276767949836822015-09-08T19:06:00.001+01:002015-09-08T19:07:54.248+01:00Synapse Science Magazine Issue 11 - Special Environmental Issue<br />
<div data-configid="5144351/15297138" style="width:650px; height:923px;" class="issuuembed"></div><script type="text/javascript" src="//e.issuu.com/embed.js" async="true"></script>Synapse Science Magazinehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02164879102603211850noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-34657498931055501692015-09-08T18:57:00.000+01:002015-09-08T18:57:05.331+01:00Synapse Science Magazine Issue 10 <div data-configid="5144351/15296914" style="width:650px; height:462px;" class="issuuembed"></div><script type="text/javascript" src="//e.issuu.com/embed.js" async="true"></script>
Synapse Science Magazinehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02164879102603211850noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-69864551138353546572015-09-01T16:10:00.000+01:002015-09-08T19:08:06.510+01:00<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>View all our magazines online for free!
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<div data-configid="5144351/15297138" style="width:650px; height:923px;" class="issuuembed"></div><script type="text/javascript" src="//e.issuu.com/embed.js" async="true"></script>Synapse Science Magazinehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02164879102603211850noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-10101333388737085102015-05-22T16:52:00.001+01:002015-05-22T16:52:02.007+01:00Science and Romance at At-Bristol's After Hours<span style="font-family: inherit;">Ever wondered what it's like to go to an After Hours event at At-Bristol? We sent Matt and Kitty, a science loving couple from the University of Bristol to their Valentines evening. Here's Matt's opinions on the night!</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Was this your first time at @Bristol? What did you think of the theme?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #222222;">No this was not our first time at @Bristol, we
attended a night hosted by the psychology society that was based on the brain.</span><span style="color: #222222;"><br />
</span></span></div>
<span style="color: #222222;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">We
thought the theme really suited the night (Valentine's Day). There was plenty
to do related to the theme and otherwise.</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Can you tell us a few things you did on the night? What was your favourite
exhibit?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #222222;">My personal favourite thing we did was (of
course) trying all of the spicy food! The primitive dating was also fun and
interesting. Seeing as it was @Bristol, we also explored and played on their
other permanent features. As a physicist I felt obliged to play with the
magnets and (attempt) to solve puzzles. The tornado wind tunnel is always an
experience.</span><span style="color: #222222;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Did you get a chance to go to the Planetarium? What show did you see,
and what did you think?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #222222;">We did get a chance to visit the planetarium
and watch a show on the night sky. The intellectual level of this was
appropriate for al, interesting, informative and visually stunning.</span><span style="color: #222222;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #222222;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Did you like the adult environment available at After Hours events?
Would you recommended it to your friends?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; color: #222222; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">We would definitely
recommend after hours (I think we actually have!) to other friends looking for
an interesting night.</span></span><o:p></o:p></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-26927918441117228552015-01-04T22:16:00.001+00:002015-02-03T11:03:30.499+00:00After Hours: Ice - Review by Hayley McLennan<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The
concept of After Hours events at At-Bristol is exceedingly clever. A few nights
a year the science centre stays open from 6pm until 10pm, for over 18s only.
There’s food, if you want it, and a bar. The lights are kept dimmed and you can
explore to your hearts content. It plays straight into the age-old fantasy of
being somewhere (school, a museum, a shopping centre…) when you’re not supposed
to be, once the lights are out and the doors are locked. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The
last event was on the 10<sup>th</sup> of December, with the suitably wintery
theme of ‘Ice’. Immediately on entrance there was a table showing changing
water patterns over the globe throughout the millennia, which gave the usual
sobering message of global warming. Another exhibit allowed you to watch
through a magnifying glass as water froze before your eyes in a beautiful
crystalline pattern. The water pump driven by a giant hamster wheel was
irresistible and kept spinning all night. A tasty touch was the free ice cream
made with liquid nitrogen at the food bar. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The
planetarium’s themed show on Inuit stargazing gave a new perspective on the
night sky and a fascinating insight into the world of the ‘eskimos’, although
it was sad to realise how much information from that culture has been lost over
the years. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Taking
a wander around the periphery of the centre, there was still access to many of
the exhibits that didn’t fit in with the theme. For me, as a first time visitor
to At-Bristol, this was wonderful. From optical illusions to aerodynamics, it
was all delightfully engaging. I can picture it charming children during the
day but surely no more than it charmed me and the other adults there for After
Hours. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I
should include a word of appreciation for the staff, working beyond their
normal hours, who were nonetheless friendly and approachable, and kept
everything running smoothly through the night. At 10pm when the announcement
came that it was closing, At-Bristol was still busy and no one seemed quite
ready to leave – I saw a few people sneaking one last go on the interactive
exhibits on their way out. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I
loved science centres as a child and it turns out that nothing has changed. If
you feel the same way, or perhaps if you are seeking a slightly different
Valentine’s date, the next After Hours is on the 14<sup>th</sup> of February,
themed, of course, ‘Love’. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-58281976654661991642014-12-20T19:43:00.002+00:002015-02-03T11:03:07.480+00:00Science, Sobriety and Snake Oil: The Electrifying Story of the Overbeck Rejuvenator by James Ormiston<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="text-align: justify;">Here’s
a challenge for you: name an inventor of an electrical device from before the
Second World War.</span><span style="text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="text-align: justify;">Who springs to mind?
Thomas Edison? Graham Bell? Maybe William Sturgeon, Samuel Morse or Alessandro
Volta? If you’ve been caught up in the recent surge of near-mythological interest
in Nikola Tesla maybe you think of him? Well here’s one person on the list who you’ve
probably never heard of: Otto Christoph Joseph Gerhardt Ludwig Overbeck.
Overbeck was a man of many interests, and during his life he was a chemist,
inventor, curio-collector, writer, artist and, most notably, a self-proclaimed
discoverer of the key to youth and vitality. The device with which he believed
he had unlocked the secret of a long and healthy life was the Overbeck
Rejuvenator, and armed with a qualified fascination in science and a canny
business mind he marketed one of the most commercially successful
electrotherapy devices ever made.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXc0gJPfgdA1ugmYfC-HI7WvrCv5iL2TRxVZjuJpI7ibi2m1w1Sfw1JHqkyEDZIY91JuOExbw2ScZGBcb_PtnY7dbLZQtbIC-72rkhQLx_5CgiIygvdcnYERdJP5JSy80DML7h6FVbbSXu/s1600/Picforblog1.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXc0gJPfgdA1ugmYfC-HI7WvrCv5iL2TRxVZjuJpI7ibi2m1w1Sfw1JHqkyEDZIY91JuOExbw2ScZGBcb_PtnY7dbLZQtbIC-72rkhQLx_5CgiIygvdcnYERdJP5JSy80DML7h6FVbbSXu/s1600/Picforblog1.png" height="320" width="233" /></span></a><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Born
in 1860, the son of a Vatican priest, Overbeck began his career as a chemist, studying
the subject at University College London until 1881. After becoming a Fellow of
the Chemical Society in 1888 he went on to work at a brewery in Grimsby as
scientific director. Here he was responsible for a few interesting
developments, including an early attempt at making alcohol-free beer and a food
extract product called Carnos which was in fact a forerunner to Marmite. Even at this stage he had begun a rigorous
habit of patenting everything he thought would become a successful invention,
Carnos being his first, which would become a staple of his approach for years
to come. His broad interest in science was evident in his personal library,
which included books not only on chemistry but biology and geology among
numerous other subjects. Such was his enthusiasm that he claimed at one point
to have discovered an element new to science.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> <i style="text-align: justify;">Self-portrait (1902)</i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In
the following years leading up to the development of his most famous invention,
the Rejuvenator, Overbeck became increasingly interested in the prospect of
restoring youth, seeking a sort of “elixir” with which he could help people
live longer with better health. His artistic side demonstrated this in a poem written
in 1889 called “The Alchemist”…<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“Yet one more drop,
& now! What do I see!<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The forms of early
youth! Forgotten dreams to me;<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rise with the misty
clouds from age’s wintry rime;<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">and boyhood’s joy
& health & summer clime<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With scent of roses
fills the air!<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Old age be-gone!<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>For eternal youth prepare!”</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was a strong believer in the
idea that electricity was the unifying key to not only life but the entire
universe, and whilst electrotherapy was not a new idea at the time Overbeck was
very keen to demonstrate its benefits to human health. In 1924 he took out a patent for an “Electric
Multiple Body Comb for Use All Over the Body”, the first patent relating to the
invention of the Overbeck Rejuvenator. The Rejuvenator consisted of insulated
metal combs which, when connected to a battery, applied a weak electrical
current to the area of the body the combs were in brought into contact with. The
patent made no reference to rejuvenating properties, but nevertheless the
product was intensely marketed as a medical miracle. Overbeck frequently backed
up his advertising with testimonials from satisfied customers, with such
whimsical quotes as:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“…elderly members of an east
coast golf club have practised with the rejuvenator, and their handicap has
been halved, and they can play three rounds as against two formerly.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“I have been using your Rejuvenator for about five
months…and have found it of great benefit. I was suffering from Neuritis, but
[am] pleased to say I have scarcely felt any pain this winter. I have worn
spectacles for 25 years, and now my eyes are wonderfully improved…my hair,
which was white, is being replaced with new dark hair. I think your Rejuvenator
is a wonderful invention.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1925 he published a book on
the subject, “A New Electronic Theory of Life”, in which he presented the
importance of electricity in conventional medicine. He cited numerous eminent
scientists of the time to back up his ideas, but he also frequently referred to
the Rejuvenator itself throughout as a cunning marketing strategy. This was a
rolling theme in the promotion of his device: using his position as a scientist
as a role of authority through which he could persuade people to buy the
Rejuvenator. Overbeck claimed it could treat all kinds of ailments from asthma
to psoriasis, and the BMA (British Medical Association) was becoming
increasingly concerned that the layman would start to ignore conventional
medicine in favour of this “easy fix” which had so far not shown much, if any,
quantifiable medical success. A model of the device was acquired for testing,
and they found that whilst the device was not necessarily dangerous there was
potential for its misuse to cause ulcers in the mouth. More worryingly, there
was good reason to believe that people using this form of alternative treatment
to treat chronic conditions like diabetes would put off seeking established
medical advice until it was too late. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGU9_NmQDZD6lFJisRdTwfglLAO5dmci4WUYl1Rmzt99nlugBWpYY0Vr7XvcNgbqzPwsrt0xg6dc7f5wCCxB7bd9rBQTHs0BApNvwrE-kescQGni_KCej5wD_UCxKqkiP9QeCRvr5w2kRw/s1600/Picforblog2.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGU9_NmQDZD6lFJisRdTwfglLAO5dmci4WUYl1Rmzt99nlugBWpYY0Vr7XvcNgbqzPwsrt0xg6dc7f5wCCxB7bd9rBQTHs0BApNvwrE-kescQGni_KCej5wD_UCxKqkiP9QeCRvr5w2kRw/s1600/Picforblog2.png" height="400" width="298" /></span></a><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Overbeck Rejuvenator was sold
across the British Empire and had a number of variants at prices starting at
around 6 guineas. Overbeck even adjusted his advertising campaigns depending on
where it was being sold in order to further publicise it, encouraging users in
the Colonies to write back to him about their experiences. One of the key parts
of the Rejuvenator’s marketing was a focus on its ability to treat certain
conditions that people felt embarrassed to talk about, such as hair loss. So
successful was the device that he was able to buy a house in Salcombe, Devon
(now a National Trust site dedicated to his work and collections), where he was
able to engage in his other passions of curio-collecting, art, music, natural history
and all other manners of hobbies and interests. But soon the Rejuvenator would
begin to lose traction as Overbeck’s advertising strategies came under fire
from the scientific community…<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Demonstration of the Rejuvenator
as a treatment for hair loss. </span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Investigations were mounted by
the BMA in the early 1930s to contact members who had been apparently quoted in
the Rejuvenator’s advertising campaigns in Australia and elsewhere.
Intriguingly many of the responses said that whilst they had bought the
devices, they had not given permission for their opinions (genuine or not) to
be published. Some outright denied any involvement with the company and
demanded an official explanation. A number of attempts were made to ban the Rejuvenator
on both medical and legal grounds, but none seemed to be successful (probably
in part due to the ruthless patenting and numerous user testimonies which
protected the device). Otto Overbeck died in 1937, but the device remained on
the market up until the Second World War, when resources needed to build it
became too difficult to acquire. Amazingly however, over 30 years after he
filed the original patent for the product, in 1955 an order for a new battery
to power an Overbeck Rejuvenator was received by one of his associates.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Whilst the Overbeck Rejuvenator
was not proven to be of any real benefit to health (despite its inventor’s
insistence), it was one of a number of early electrical devices to appear in
British homes and elsewhere which aided the mainstream acceptance of a
relatively new and revolutionary power source. It also provided a valuable
lesson of the power of advertising, especially when coupled with the authority
of science to persuade the public to buy a product. This is a theme that
continues to this day, see how many toothpaste adverts feature an interview
with dentists! Overbeck may have been mistaken in his faith of medicinal electricity,
he may have even known it was of little use and was simply a very good seller
of his contraption, but one thing remains certain: his multi-disciplinary life story
is one of both eccentricity and intrigue. </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-41471683566244061492014-12-12T10:46:00.002+00:002014-12-12T10:46:39.216+00:00Synapse Science Magazine Issue 9<div class="issuuembed" data-configid="5144351/10537561" style="height: 462px; width: 650px;">
</div>
<script async="true" src="//e.issuu.com/embed.js" type="text/javascript"></script>Synapse Science Magazinehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02164879102603211850noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-24948917008887937082014-11-29T17:20:00.001+00:002014-12-12T10:36:07.564+00:00An interview with Professor Bruce Hood, School of Experimental Psychology, 11/11/2014 - by Melissa Levy<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Professor Bruce Hood is a Professor of Developmental
Psychology in Society. He is specifically interested in cognitive development
from a neuroscience perspective, but also works on face and gaze processing,
inhibitory control of thoughts and actions, spatial representation and action,
naïve theories and the origin of adult magical reasoning from children’s
natural intuitions. If you want any more information about what he and his
group then follow this link: <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/expsych/people/bruce-m-hood/">http://www.bristol.ac.uk/expsych/people/bruce-m-hood/</a>
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Where did you go to
university and what did you study?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“My first university was the University of Dundee in
Scotland where I did an arts degree. In Scotland you can do a four year degree
and take lots of different topics, I didn’t know anything about psychology and
I was doing things like economics, accountancy and finance but I had to take
another subject and so I took psychology and fell in love with it! This made me
decide that I wanted to be a psychologist! So I went to Cambridge and did my
PHD there, so I’ve been in Scotland and Cambridge.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">How did you get from
there to where you are now in Bristol?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“How long have you got?! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After Cambridge I had a position at UCL and then I got a MRC
(medical research council) travelling fellowship which enabled me to go
anywhere in the world and I went to MIT. So I did my post-doctorate at MIT and
then I applied for a position at Harvard and I was an associate professor there
for five years. Then I came to Bristol.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">How would you
describe your area of research to someone who’s not in the field?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“Well I have very diverse interests but I suppose they all
deal with aspects of development of mind - in the childhood origins of how we
think as adults. I’m interested in children not because they’re kids but
because I think they give a great insight into the complexity of adult
behaviour and the human mind and also some indication as to how we’ve evolved
complexity.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>How would you describe your typical day and your typical
research? It’s obviously different to that of a chemist let’s say…</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“Well unfortunately I
don’t have the luxury of doing the research myself directly, although occasionally
I will help out. I really love conducting research and collecting data but
because I’ve got so many projects running simultaneously I can’t actually
collect data myself. So usually it’s working with my post-docs and my
grad-students to devise and design experiments, piloting them here in the
centre and then very often taking them out into the community. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">We do research at the
@Bristol Science Museum, but we also collect data in the schools, so it’s a lot
of what you would regard as field work. But if we were using a technology which
doesn’t transport like eye-movement recordings or ERP (Event Related Potentials
–brain signals) then we would do that in the lab.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>If you could go back to conducting the field work yourself
would you do that or are you happy with where you are now?</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“Yeah I am happy where I
am now, but I’ve not lost touch with the sheer joy of data collecting. For me,
experimentation is just wondrous and the fact that I can be paid for something
that I enjoy so thoroughly is fantastic and I love to share that! I mean there
are so many questions that I’d like to answer and I couldn’t answer them myself
so I need to have people doing it for me and that’s why we have research students
doing that all. I mean I would be delighted if I was just doing research.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>What advice would you give to someone looking for a career
in science?</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“Passion! That’s what
gets you out of bed in the morning! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">You have to have a sense
of wonder and joy and curiosity, and if this is what you want then this should
be enough to drive you forward, and if you have the confidence to do so then
you should be fine.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>What has been your proudest achievement to date?</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“Well I suppose it has to
be giving the royal institute Christmas lectures on the BBC. I’m very
passionate about what I do and I really want to take science out into the
community and that is the pinnacle of public engagements so that gave me, for a
very short time, a platform and a spotlight, which was really quite
exceptional. I got to meet so many amazing people, I got to inspire people and
I’ve had email correspondence from parents of young children – they still
contact me three years later keeping me up to date with their achievements in
science and I find that extraordinarily valuable to realise that what you do
actually changes people’s lives and makes a difference.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> I’ve always felt that we (psychologists) have
a bit of an identity problem that people don’t see us as a real science and
that really annoys me. So that’s my other agenda, to make sure people
understand how complex the mind can be and that it’s not common sense at all.
There are some extraordinary things that we are yet to discover. So yeah I’m
passionate about science communication.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>If you could do science with anyone, dead or alive, who
would it be?</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“Gosh, so many to choose
from!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One of my greatest
mentors was Richard Gregory. You may not know, but Richard Gregory was and
still is a great influence on many of us. Richard effectively started the first
science museum, the Exploratorium here in Bristol, and he was a great and
passionate science communicator. He did some really brilliant work on vision
and perception, has illusions named after him – everyone who works in my field
of perception will know of Richard Gregory. He was of a genre with a connection
to the past, he knew Wittgenstein, he was taught by some of the great names, so
he made this connection for me with the past. But he was just so enthusiastic
and so passionate – it was infectious, he was like a little child at times when
he was talking about things! And really that’s what’s so important to me about
science. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">People think that science
is dull and boring and of course it isn’t! You and I know that it’s actually
very fulfilling, and communicating that
passion in a way which is sensible to the general public is what my agenda is.”</span><o:p></o:p></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-26319733833552242322014-11-20T20:16:00.000+00:002014-12-12T10:35:45.802+00:00Jaws: the impact of media on shark declines by Rachel Baxter<div class="MsoNormal">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpKQXqC66Vt1A82HfEsAGuEcLLbZUkeRzlD_PFi1jfJrjDD_9gY3Sc0nXVcu-6TIwWipPnNnIyLMu9lsqnkyxgo9r4qxM01RhwKkUJAlw7Uouty3RXnC3Mz2Rio_IyhVd-4NIb8eOtH10/s1600/divershark_cs.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpKQXqC66Vt1A82HfEsAGuEcLLbZUkeRzlD_PFi1jfJrjDD_9gY3Sc0nXVcu-6TIwWipPnNnIyLMu9lsqnkyxgo9r4qxM01RhwKkUJAlw7Uouty3RXnC3Mz2Rio_IyhVd-4NIb8eOtH10/s1600/divershark_cs.jpg" height="408" width="640" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One of Hollywood’s favourite villains, sharks have always
been dubbed as horrifying man-eaters. However, this is more fictional creation
than fact, and as shark populations rapidly decline, are creations like ‘Jaws’
partly to blame? </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1975 when ‘Jaws’ hit our screens, sharks swam into the
spotlight as malevolent killers lurking in the deep. Following the film’s
release, shark fishing increased rapidly, especially in the USA, as many wanted
to emulate the heroic protagonists, whilst others wanted to cull sharks to make
the seas safer. This reduced shark populations and 40 years later they are
still deteriorating, due to overfishing for sport and meat, particularly for
use in shark fin soup, a traditional Asian delicacy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEHiaq0xjKwKy09qr0fmEagVxl6ZtjzrHAtZmUdbkdp-JMdBmOwH32ikZT_FYHlAmZZLBMt3LfCJzS1aijudtdCBbKPLxPQEb_TWB9M5E8jkZAOk9mACezle9-0j22RZCR4xNpg4F8wp8/s1600/shark-fin.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEHiaq0xjKwKy09qr0fmEagVxl6ZtjzrHAtZmUdbkdp-JMdBmOwH32ikZT_FYHlAmZZLBMt3LfCJzS1aijudtdCBbKPLxPQEb_TWB9M5E8jkZAOk9mACezle9-0j22RZCR4xNpg4F8wp8/s1600/shark-fin.jpg" height="228" width="320" /></a><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Scientists estimate that shark finning kills up to 100
million sharks a year. Finning involves catching any shark, regardless of
species or size, and removing its fin and discarding the body back into the water.
This is often carried out whilst the shark is still alive and subsequently leaves
the animal to die a slow and painful death. The heightened demand for shark
fins is due to increasing prosperity in Asian countries such as China. This has
resulted in a higher demand for expensive delicacies like shark fin soup, which
costs up to $100 a bowl. Consequently, the value of shark fins has soared,
meaning that thousands of sharks are killed for their fins daily. As a result,
many shark species such as tiger sharks and hammerheads have experienced
population decreases of over 90% in recent years. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sharks are an apex predator throughout the world’s oceans.
This means that they are at the top of the food chain and significant decline
in their numbers has the potential to impact nearly every organism living in
our seas. One issue is that in the absence of shark predation prey species
populations will proliferate, thus decimating populations of their own prey. An
example of this is already occurring in the eastern Pacific Ocean, spanning
from California to Tierra del Fuego, at the southern tip of South America. The
decline of sharks here has led to a huge increase in Humboldt squid, a
predatory species of squid whose populations were historically controlled by
sharks. However, due to the reduction in their natural predators, their
populations have expanded rapidly and this is having an impact on fish stocks,
as the squid will consume nearly any fish that they come across. The true
impact of shark declines is still unknown but it is likely to change population
numbers of a vast variety of different species and seriously upset the balance
of marine ecosystems, all over the world.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Therefore, the conservation of sharks is key. Current
conservation efforts include discouragement of shark consumption, especially in
shark fin soup through methods such as petitions. Also, more and more sharks
are becoming protected. In 1991 South Africa became the first country to
protect great white sharks. Furthermore, many countries, including the UK, have
now implemented restrictions on shark fishing and finning. Therefore there is
hope for sharks, but attitudes need to be changed in order to increase support
of conservation efforts. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtTbA7z7wYshgioSdNK-g-8s7p-zVree6IPwZUhToUM0_qz5vtkJzxMZVXYzzArGXA7UiDL5KwEaxIk4XorLCuNgM4q4afyV8a7OoobVeNYZc2r2CKwshy_7kr04DXzXwsaEbaV2y2rkY/s1600/blue-shark.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtTbA7z7wYshgioSdNK-g-8s7p-zVree6IPwZUhToUM0_qz5vtkJzxMZVXYzzArGXA7UiDL5KwEaxIk4XorLCuNgM4q4afyV8a7OoobVeNYZc2r2CKwshy_7kr04DXzXwsaEbaV2y2rkY/s1600/blue-shark.jpg" height="424" width="640" /></span></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To change attitudes, it is essential that people understand
that sharks pose very little danger to humans; in fact we pose much more danger
to them. Whilst an average of 4.2 humans may be killed by sharks each year, humans
kill an estimated 100 million sharks annually. There are over 400 species of
shark, whilst only 4 of these species have ever been involved in attacks on
humans (great white, tiger, bull and oceanic whitetip), yet almost all shark
species are affected by fishing. In fact, the chance of a shark attack is
minute. Millions of people swim in the sea every year whilst only about 4
fatalities occur annually. In contrast, every year 150 people die due to
falling coconuts, 10,000 die by lightning strike, and 24 are killed by flying
champagne corks!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">What’s more, many shark attacks on humans are thought to be
accidental. Shark attacks often occur on surfers. This is because from below, a
surfboard with four legs resembles the shape of a seal. In fact, sharks are
never out to get humans, as we are not their natural prey. Humans are much larger
and bonier than prey organisms such as fish and seals, and wetsuits are not part
of a shark’s ideal diet! Also, the vast majority of shark attacks on humans
involve only one bite. This is interesting as hunting sharks use an initial
bite to weaken their prey, and then use further bites to kill. This indicates
that most sharks that attack humans immediately realise that they have made an error,
and consequently back away. So, is the revengeful, human-hunting shark from
‘Jaws’ simply an entertaining invention? <o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjH1ZsA3remE8GVTiW989griGrsFSajr3Ca1K7NX6T2bG0P6-1yDJsg-o5fo-q0tdEC1X13LOdiySlrZfWNbzbQRmJZikZF5Nd4uKHas_9WPsE4zmgWj-bukHoTttln3OREy5pjwr4GIMQ/s1600/WW-QA-5-great-white-shark.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjH1ZsA3remE8GVTiW989griGrsFSajr3Ca1K7NX6T2bG0P6-1yDJsg-o5fo-q0tdEC1X13LOdiySlrZfWNbzbQRmJZikZF5Nd4uKHas_9WPsE4zmgWj-bukHoTttln3OREy5pjwr4GIMQ/s1600/WW-QA-5-great-white-shark.jpg" height="266" width="400" /></span></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is true that ‘Jaws’ is based on real events; the Jersey
Shore attacks of 1916. These attacks involved four fatalities and one injury
during the summer of 1916 off the Jersey Coast in North America. However,
scientists concur that these attacks were a freak incident, and the same
scenario has never been repeated. Ironically, Peter Benchley, the author of
‘Jaws’, became a keen shark conservationist, regretting his portrayal of sharks
as monsters as it had such a significant impact on the world’s perception of
them.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Perhaps, one day, films will undo what they have done and depict
sharks in a new light. Swimmers will no longer be haunted by ‘ba-dum ba-dum’
and more people will be concerned by shark declines. This could reduce shark
fishing and improve attitudes towards conservation, so that shark populations are
saved before it is too late and the balance of our oceans changes forever.</span></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-30789476358807222622014-11-17T18:00:00.000+00:002014-11-17T18:00:03.932+00:00The IgNobel awards<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">The ‘stinker’. Official mascot of the IgNobel awards</span></td></tr>
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<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;"><i>“For work that first makes people laugh and then think”</i></span></b><div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><i>by Felix Kennedy</i></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">September 18th saw the 24th annual <b><a href="http://www.improbable.com/ig/"><span style="color: blue;">IgNobel </span></a></b>awards ceremony take place. Now, almost as famous as the Nobel Prize awards they aim to mimic, prizes are given for research that ‘first makes you laugh, and then makes you think’. The prizes are intended to celebrate the unusual, honour the imaginative and spur people's interest in science, medicine, and technology.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Past notable winners have included <b>University of Bristol</b> professor, Sir Michael Berry, who won the prize along with Sir Andre Geim, for floating a frog in a strong magnetic field. This is possible as almost all material displays a very weak type of magnetism called diamagnetism. Even material that would never usually be regarded as magnetic, such as water, contains electrons. Under a strong enough magnetic influence, the electrons within a material align and develop a magnetic field of their own that opposes the magnetic field they are in. This causes the material to be repelled from the magnet and if the repulsion is strong enough, the material will simply float, in this case the frog. Although the feeling of weightlessness was probably rather disconcerting to the frog, I would like to point out that no animals were hurt in the undertaking of this experiment-the frog was completely fine afterwards!</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Frog_diamagnetic_levitation.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="302" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Frog_diamagnetic_levitation.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">A weightless frog, floating in a magnetic field</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Historically, IgNobel prizes have been awarded for rather obscure work, but real world applications have been found for discoveries that may seem merely interesting at first glance. A good example is a study that won the IgNobel prize in Biology showing that malaria mosquitoes (Anophelese gambiae) are equally attracted by the smell of Limburger cheese and human feet. Since then traps have been baited with Limburger cheese across Africa to help combat the epidemic of malaria. Another such example was in the field of Chemistry when the 2011 Chemistry IgNobel prize went to researchers who determined the ideal density of airborne wasabi to wake people up. The research has now been incorporated into some alarm systems to help wake deaf people in the case of an emergency.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the other hand, some winners have produced work where it hard to find an application in the real world. This rather extensive list includes the 2008 IgNobel prize in Biology that was award to researches for discovering that fleas on dogs jump higher than fleas on cats. In another case a prize was awarded researchers from Scotland’s Rural College for their work on bovine behaviour. They found that cows that have been lying down longer are more likely to stand up soon, however once a cow has stood up it is much harder to predict when it will lie down again. Other cow related IgNobel prizes include one given to Newcastle University researchers who found that cows with names produced more milk than those without names, and one given to researchers who developed a method to extract vanilla flavour from cow dung. In this instance vanillin was extracted in a more cost efficient method than taking it from vanilla pods. This means if you want cheaper vanilla extract for your cakes, then look no further a field of cows!</span></div>
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<a href="http://www.funnypica.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Funny-Cow-01.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="276" src="http://www.funnypica.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Funny-Cow-01.jpg" width="320" /></a><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With other winning pieces, if you really try, you might just be able to find some useful information. For example, unless you have rather stubborn sheep and are looking for the easiest floor to pull them across, I can’t see why a paper written by Australian scientists entitled "An analysis of the forces required to drag sheep over various surfaces” would be of any interest to you. Despite this, the paper still won the IgNobel prize in Physics in 2003.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Some prizes are award in jest to people you may not think deserve recognition for their work. One that falls into this category is the 2005 IgNobel award for literature, given to the ‘internet entrepreneurs of Nigeria’. You may know these people as the ‘lost relative’ scam artists, where an email will pop into your inbox from some distance relative explaining that they are in line to inherit a large sum of money. The catch is they need a small amount of cash to pay some legal fees and, if you are able to pay the fees, then you would be rewarded handsomely once they receive their money. Unfortunately the story is a fable, but the less savvy amongst us have sent money abroad in a hope of receiving part of the fortune anyway. The organisers of the IgNobel awards found that this fraud showed ingenuity and imagination, awarding the prize for literature to these con artists. Another controversial winner was the president of Belarus, Alexander Lukashenko, who won the IgNobel peace prize rather ironically, in 2013. He received the Ig Nobel award for decreeing that it would now be illegal to applaud in a public area and he shared the award with the Belarus state police department for arresting a one armed man for clapping in public.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.nature.com/news/2003/031003/images/sheep_180.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Sloping, slatted, wooden platforms are preferable for sheep dragging." border="0" src="http://www.nature.com/news/2003/031003/images/sheep_180.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Sheep pulling over the preferred surface</span></td></tr>
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The breadth of work that the prizes cover and the weirdness of some of the academic work complied here, I believe, is outstanding. I think it is also interesting how the IgNobel awards are also used to highlight questionable work, such as the distant relative scam and the odd laws that have been introduced in Belarus. If you have enjoyed this article I suggest you have a look at the rather extensive IgNobel award Wikipedia page. There are many more interesting winners that I have not been able to list here and I am certain many will ‘First making you laugh and then making you think’</div>
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All that is left to say is that I hope you are looking forward to the 2015 IgNobel prizes as eagerly as I am!</div>
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Synapse Science Magazinehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02164879102603211850noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-59989121716695027962014-11-15T10:00:00.000+00:002014-11-15T10:44:54.587+00:00Meet the cells that keep neurons running<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><i>by Jonathan Smith</i></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When watching a Formula 1 race, it’s easy to forget that the racing drivers, skilled as they are, don’t work alone. When the car pulls into a pit stop, however, you see a bustling team of mechanics and other experts eagerly rush out to keep the car and driver in top condition. Meanwhile, security staff stand by, blocking public access and keeping a watchful eye on any danger that may present itself. Similarly too, the F1 drivers of the nervous system, neurons, get a lot of attention due to their unique information-processing properties. However, there’s a diverse team of specialised cells that beaver away in the background of the nervous system, carrying out essential tasks analogous to the F1 driver’s pit stop team. Without these plucky little cells, neurons wouldn’t propagate information properly and the nervous system would cease to function. With that in mind then, let’s give some of the most important overlooked cells the limelight for a change, starting with the ‘security guards’ of the mammalian nervous system.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><i><b>Endothelial cells form the Great Wall of the Brain</b></i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As we eat, sleep and move about, our blood ion and sugar levels are constantly in fluctuation. For our neurons that require tightly controlled conditions, exposure to this would be highly detrimental. Thankfully, we can look to endothelial cells, which line the interface between brain tissue and the bloodstream, forming a shield against peripheral influence known as the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB). By surrounding blood vessels and plugging gaps in the line with protein complexes called Tight Junctions, these endothelial cells and their buddies the pericytes not only cushion brain tissue from fluctuating ion and glucose concentrations but also block passage to many complex molecules, including foreign pathogens.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="/static-content/images/480/art%253A10.1007%252Fs10545-013-9608-0/MediaObjects/10545_2013_9608_Fig3_HTML.gif" src="http://link.springer.com/static-content/images/480/art%253A10.1007%252Fs10545-013-9608-0/MediaObjects/10545_2013_9608_Fig3_HTML.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Figure 1: The endothelial Blood-Brain Barrier around a capillary (red chamber) combines with glial cells such as microglia and astrocytes to form a safe nutrient delivery system to neurons. Pericytes and tight junctions help the endothelial cells to seal the boundary and astrocytes use an end foot process to suck up the nutrients passed along by the barrier. Microglia wait on the side, checking for hazards. Source: SR Yusof and NJ Abbott, from Abbot, 2013, doi: 10.1007/s10545-013-9608-0</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Not content to simply act as a wall, these cells also tirelessly shuttle essential ions, sugars and other chemicals into the brain and remove toxins through their own cytoplasm, ensuring that neurons are both protected from the outside world and aptly supplied with the nutrients they require. Furthermore, white blood cells of the immune system - the body’s police force - regularly squeeze through the barrier in order to check for danger. However, this also works against the brain in conditions such as strokes in which the BBB becomes leaky and can’t limit the passage of white blood cells, thus increasing inflammation and exacerbating the problem.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b><i>You won’t like microglia when they’re angry</i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Inside the BBB we encounter the glial cell population. Glial cells - named after the Greek word for ‘glue’ - share many characteristics with neurons but lack the unique structures and functions that specialise neurons for information transmission. Instead, glial cells play a diverse set of roles maintaining the nervous system. Numbering at around 15% of all glial cells, security guard microglia are the subject of intense research because of their incredible versatility. These cells spend the majority of their time simply sitting in the brain tissue, waving their dainty branch-like processes around in a constant search for signs of danger. When they pick up a scent of damage or invasion, however, microglia turn ugly. These sentinels kick off tissue inflammation and undergo an Incredible Hulk-esque transformation into a blob that engulfs and digests the offending party before innocently reverting back to its original state. </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Figure 2: Microglia (green) detects a tissue injury and springs to action. Its extended processes detect signs of damage and trigger the cell’s transformation into a big blob that engulfs the debris. Source: adapted from Nayak et al, 2014, doi: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-032713-120240</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With this astounding response to hazards, microglia make impressive enforcers. However, mountains of research have revealed that they can do much more than this. They communicate with cells of the immune system that pop in every so often. In addition, microglia have been found to nurture the growth of neurons in embryonic development and help to prune unwanted cells from the nervous system in developing juveniles. They could even play an important role in synaptic function, making them crucial for normal information processing. However, these eager cells may also work against us in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s Disease and Parkinson’s Disease, believed to involve high inflammation that proves to be neurotoxic in the long run. By better understanding the role these cells play in the pathology, we might able to devise new strategies for treating these conditions.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><i><b>Insulating the wiring with oligodendrocytes</b></i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mammal neurons are small, thin cells compared to some of the whoppers found in invertebrate animals such as the giant squid. Most neurons output their information through a long process called an axon and, due to electrical resistance inside the cell, neurons with thinner axons propagate information more slowly than those with thicker axons. How then could a nervous system operate with such small neurons? The answer is myelination. This is the process by which specialised glial cells called oligodendrocytes and their peripheral cousins Schwann cells tightly wrap their own fatty membrane - the myelin sheath - around the axons, leaving little gaps of axonal membrane that allow electrical potentials to ‘jump’ significant distances along the axon. This increases possible propagation speeds up to 100 metres per second in humans - perfect for neuronal communication.</span><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Figure 3: Oligodendrocytes (blue) ensheathe many axons (brown) in myelin to facilitate electrical transmission. Source: Wikipedia</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Insulation might not be the only function for these ‘mechanics’ of the nervous system. Recent research indicates that oligodendrocytes can not only insulate axons, but may also directly support the axon’s energy requirements by supplying substrate molecules used in metabolic reactions such as lactate. Further studies indicate that oligodendrocytes promote neuronal survival and axonal growth. The importance of these cells and Schwann cells is further underscored by the fact that the disorder Multiple Sclerosis (MS) arises from demyelination of axons throughout the nervous system. For a multitude of reasons, the immune system attacks myelin and thus deprives neurons of essential support, causing neurodegeneration and, as a consequence of this, ultimately life-threatening paralysis in MS patients. However, strategies are now being trialled that may be able to divert or retrain the immune system and prevent the progression of MS.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b><i>Astrocytes - star players in the nervous system</i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Astrocytes are star-shaped glial cells thanks to their many fine processes, hence the name. Acclaimed as the most abundant type of cell in the human brain, these cells have the chief responsibility of transporting nutrients from blood vessels to nearby neurons by means of a long ‘foot’ process. Astrocytes also oversee chemical synapses - vital junctions at which neurons communicate using neurotransmitters - and each astrocyte can monitor up to a whopping 140,000 synapses! Taking roles analogous to trainers, medics and mechanics in the F1 team, astrocytes are absolutely essential for the survival of the nervous system and by extension, the entire organism.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As can be expected, lots of research gets devoted to unraveling the precise roles that astrocytes play in the nervous system. It’s now clear that these ubiquitous cells encourage the formation and pruning of synapses in the developing brain. In addition, they fine-tune synaptic activity by supplying necessary energy substrates, hoovering up and recycling excess neurotransmitters, prevent seizures by clearing away potassium ions and physically ensheath the synaptic space, reducing spillover of neurotransmitters to nearby cells. Unfortunately, astrocytomas are among the most common cancers in the nervous system and have a relatively high mortality rate. They damage the brain tissue by increasing pressure inside the skull, compete for nutrients and releasing toxic chemicals into the brain, resulting in varied symptoms including headaches, seizures and occasionally personality changes. Though the classic cancer treatments are available such as surgical removal, it’s hard to cut away all of the high-grade tumours due to their rapid infiltration into the brain.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b><i>Collective thinking</i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Aside from the heroes discussed in this piece, there are also tons more subsets of cells that deserve honourable mentions, including parenchymal cells that circulate cerebrospinal fluid around the brain and the somewhat enigmatic NG2 glia, whose precise function still eludes us. While staying mostly in the background, these other cells all have vital functions that serve to ensure that our neurons keep running smoothly. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Neurons tend to be the main focus of neuroscientific studies. This attention is well deserved considering that they are the substrates of our very thoughts. However, after examining some non-neuronal cells, it’s clear that neurons wouldn’t last a minute without the help of their expert team on hand. By exerting modulatory influence on neuronal development and synaptic activity, it could be argued that the support cells similarly affect our thinking and learning processes, an argument particularly evidenced by complex neurodegenerative diseases involving lots of cell pathologies. With this in mind then, let’s all watch some F1 and spare a thought about the collaborative efforts involved in securing first place!</span><br />
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Synapse Science Magazinehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02164879102603211850noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-59979180434731253142014-10-19T13:16:00.002+01:002014-11-14T15:59:55.648+00:00Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation: Remoulding the Brain by Duncan Ware<div class="MsoNormal">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRTbfUzkJRD_eZyCfkGoOgoblMKhUwpJf125zevWYbeIkM6-RTp9XfJrEPDUyzl-qqzby9ULns5goq7vOCy-NHH6cY4RAcMB5H9fZ-Y9xTBd_jXYJYL00mX9x-DQ7CL8GkFDPTDKVR3uU/s1600/_71876007_c0177401-brain_activity,_artwork-spl.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRTbfUzkJRD_eZyCfkGoOgoblMKhUwpJf125zevWYbeIkM6-RTp9XfJrEPDUyzl-qqzby9ULns5goq7vOCy-NHH6cY4RAcMB5H9fZ-Y9xTBd_jXYJYL00mX9x-DQ7CL8GkFDPTDKVR3uU/s1600/_71876007_c0177401-brain_activity,_artwork-spl.jpg" height="359" width="640" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A transient tingling sensation on my scalp, accompanied by
an equally fleeting phosphene across my visual field, alerts me to the fact
that 2 milliamps of direct current are now passing through my brain, the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) to be specific. No, I haven’t been
denied extradition from a pro-electric chair state, I willingly made myself a
component in the circuitry of a technology known as transcranial direct current
stimulation (tDCS).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is widely accepted that everything we do has an effect on
the ‘wiring’ of our brains, a fact proposed most succinctly by
neuropsychologist Donald Hebb, whose words are forever paraphrased as “neurons
that fire together, wire together”. Hebb’s law is now known to rely on
long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), the enhancement
and reduction of synaptic efficacy, respectively. These mechanisms of synaptic
plasticity are thought to be the fundamental processes which underlie learning
and memory, and perhaps even mood disorders and addiction. It is therefore of
little surprise that tDCS, a technology capable of modulating synaptic
plasticity, has become subject to a great deal of research in recent years.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">TDCS involves the application of electrodes to the scalp
above particular regions of the brain, as determined by the Brodmann area map
used for electroencephalography (EEG); the regions stimulated dictate the
effects of the session. The anode exerts a depolarising influence on the
neuronal somata (neuronal cell bodies) of the cortex and hyperpolarises the
apical dendrites, whereas the cathode induces hyperpolarisation of the somata
and depolarisation of the apical dendrites. Relating this back to synaptic
plasticity, the areas affected by the anode become more likely to ‘fire’,
meaning their synapses are more prone to LTP, and, conversely, regions of the
brain affected by the cathode become less active and are more likely to undergo
LTD. This is more or less the extent to our understanding of the mechanism by
which the effects of tDCS are manifested.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The clinical applications of an electrical current applied
to the scalp have been known for years. As far back as 43 AD, in fact, Roman
emperor Claudius’ physician used the shocks of electric eels to abate the pain
of headaches! Today it is known that tDCS is capable of ameliorating a
multitude of pathological afflictions, from stroke damage to schizophrenia, but
also that you and I, as presumably healthy individuals, might derive benefit
from the occasional zap.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Attending to the former claim of therapeutic potential in
the ill, the montage (electrode placement) with which I am, to use the term
most loosely, <i>experimenting</i> today has
been found to remediate depression. Some studies have found that just 20
minutes of 2 mA anodal stimulation over the DLPFC to reduce self-reported
depression by as much as 10% for every week of daily use. Unfortunately, many
of the studies I have come across regarding tDCS are ‘open-label’, science
jargon denoting clinical trials in which both the researchers and participants
know which subjects are receiving which treatments (in this case, the real
treatment or a ‘sham’ control). Unlike its ‘double-blind’ antithesis,
open-label studies are plagued by the expectancy effects of both the
researcher’s overt enthusiasm, or lack thereof, for the treatment and the
subject’s expectations of its outcome. Consequently, one might denounce the
aforementioned results to be a direct outcome of the placebo effect. This
criticism has been largely dismissed by more recent double-blind trials and
studies investigating the relative efficacy of tDCS and established
pharmacological therapies such as sertraline (an SSRI antidepressant). Such
studies have found tDCS and SSRIs to be of equal efficacy, though a combination
of the two was found to be of superior efficacy to either alone, a synergistic
pairing I hope will soon be exploited in clinical practice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For those who refrain from the use of recreational drugs due
to their deleterious effects or illegality, perhaps you might consider potentiating
your own endogenous substances for a similar effect? I recently came across a
most intriguing montage which achieves just that. With the anode attached to
the C3 Brodmann area, corresponding to the region of the scalp which lies above
the primary motor cortex of the left hemisphere, and the cathode pressed
against my upper right arm, effects reminiscent of those one might experience
following consumption of a weak opiate such as codeine were elicited almost
immediately. As someone who has done much experimenting, in the euphemistic
sense, this was a most welcome experience I quickly sought to investigate. A
google or two later and I found a publication released last year detailing the
analgesic potential of tDCS, an effect they put down to the µ-opioid system.
Opioid receptors are those which transduce the effects of opiates and opioids
(substances of similar pharmacological profiles to opiates), like morphine and
methadone respectively. But the body possesses its own painkillers, including
enkephalins, endorphins and dynorphins to name but a few, and it is these
substances whose production is upregulated upon stimulation of the motor cortex.
What the paper failed to mention, however, was the euphoric sensations evoked
by this montage. Feeling like a character from Huxley’s Brave New World, I
amused myself with the idea of becoming a junky without ever having pierced a
vein or ‘chased the dragon’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Another, more frequently studied, area of tDCS research
focuses on the technology’s potential as a <i>cognitive
enhancer</i>. The phrase is employed with ever increasing frequency as we
strive to match our efficiency with the demands of modern life, or perhaps to
simply mimic Bradley Cooper’s character in the film ‘Limitless’! Whilst I
shan’t delve too deeply into the ethical storm which stalks this phrase, I feel
that the practice must be discussed. The majority of research in this area
pertains to the augmentation of working memory, the ability to hold information
in one’s mind to permit its manipulation and analysis. Such research supports
the idea that anodal stimulation of the left prefrontal cortex, a brain region
implicated in a variety of executive functions, results in a significant
improvement in the working memory of healthy participants. However, some
experts admonish users of the trade-off between anodal excitation and cathodal
inhibition that is so integral to the device’s mechanism of action. By this,
they refer to the fact that whilst you might enhance the activity of one area,
with the anode, you will also suppress activity in the area beneath the
cathode. Minimising the impact of this trade-off is undoubtedly a task we must
prioritise in brain stimulation research, especially given the diffuse nature
of tDCS’ influence on the brain, which it seems may extend to subcortical
structures.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And so, whilst I must urge you to take caution, should you
proceed to plug yourself into the mains (figuratively, a 9 volt battery is
sufficient) tDCS is a wonderful medical development which, along with its
successors: transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and high-resolution tDCS, I
predict we will be seeing much more of in the coming years. </span></div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-77806645792332666792014-10-07T21:57:00.001+01:002014-10-09T20:20:13.782+01:00Synapse Review: Sir David Attenborough opens the Life Sciences Building by Daisy Dunne<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBSoMOu2cmwtP6KUACWDJjCHNaZglW_cM40dE-Q8alOkIQ-u2WPCJRQxPQfWQILYzMyCfFAKbvz-6tRZAWfg90moliFRaVLsXmDkNSGY1qeVUB5g5nDUay_Y14dlZKQlQ-VRpUF9pPyfcU/s1600/LSbuilding-article.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBSoMOu2cmwtP6KUACWDJjCHNaZglW_cM40dE-Q8alOkIQ-u2WPCJRQxPQfWQILYzMyCfFAKbvz-6tRZAWfg90moliFRaVLsXmDkNSGY1qeVUB5g5nDUay_Y14dlZKQlQ-VRpUF9pPyfcU/s1600/LSbuilding-article.jpg" height="201" width="320" /></span></a><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On my first visit to Bristol’s Biological Sciences School
back in 2011, I was marched across campus to stare at a giant empty crater on
the corner of Tyndall Avenue, which I was assured would soon become the most
impressive building the university has ever attempted to construct. Now, some
three years later, the end result of the £54 million project is staggering –
and who better to welcome in the new build than Biology’s biggest living
legend, Sir David Attenborough. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At just gone 11am on Monday, I waited excitedly with an
assortment of 200 distinguished guests, including senior lecturers and the
city’s Mayor, for the esteemed naturalist and wildlife broadcaster to arrive
and officially open Bristol’s new world-class Life Sciences Building. The
university’s Vice-chancellor <em><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Professor Sir Eric Thomas
welcomed us all before the now retired Vice-chancellor </span></em><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Professor<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">David</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Clarke, who oversaw the building’s
construction, regaled us with stories of some of the project’s difficulties –
including the discovery of ancient gun powder under the old physics workroom
that occupied the site. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Soon
after, </span>Sir David took to the microphone to deliver a compelling and
personal speech, centralised around the importance of understanding the Natural
Sciences to tackle the world’s most pressing problems. He stressed: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“The only way we will deal with the problems on this planet
of ours that we have created is to understand what goes on… nothing, nothing
could be more important in the area of scholarship than this.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“Unless we understand the very systems on which we live, the
food we eat, the air we breathe, unless we understand how our world affects us,
we’ll be in real trouble.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">What’s more, he highlighted the importance of bridging the
gap between science and the wider community, to make them realise “how
important it is for us to do something”.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSxz7alwvVds7QL9TKvZxjUfG44ZwKInfxb-rqOho1QA5LqREMObB_Xnm6fnsppUFDV4WFFnBqAcuBPPGFRic2RVbPIXg3a2cWLDMNcMMy3ZSoKgZpJtD6tXYX2SFkEIWwneh3SS37DZJU/s1600/Attenborough-article.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSxz7alwvVds7QL9TKvZxjUfG44ZwKInfxb-rqOho1QA5LqREMObB_Xnm6fnsppUFDV4WFFnBqAcuBPPGFRic2RVbPIXg3a2cWLDMNcMMy3ZSoKgZpJtD6tXYX2SFkEIWwneh3SS37DZJU/s1600/Attenborough-article.jpg" height="213" width="320" /></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In addition to this passionate message, he also spoke of
“the joy, resonance and delight” that can be conjured from the natural world,
adding “understanding the natural sciences will give you joy for the rest of
your lives, it brought great joy to me.” </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNEnA5SpSbmNGqf3TBDq0E5JsI46p5X3UmAJ7THu55bp-W1z1u3_qbYDudGRP9798Pkpy-vssPnJXAbOffqfKQ4jIu3vExf61Rs81udXxgd14LpS-TU8zYgWDZtdMNzTXLU5XshSvVZxv3/s1600/attenborough2-article.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNEnA5SpSbmNGqf3TBDq0E5JsI46p5X3UmAJ7THu55bp-W1z1u3_qbYDudGRP9798Pkpy-vssPnJXAbOffqfKQ4jIu3vExf61Rs81udXxgd14LpS-TU8zYgWDZtdMNzTXLU5XshSvVZxv3/s1600/attenborough2-article.jpg" height="213" width="320" /></span></a><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To finish, he professed: “I’m proud to be a freeman of this
great city and also to hold an honorary degree from this very, very
distinguished university”, before unveiling the building’s new plaque and
declaring the building officially open.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After Sir David’s awe-inspiring speech, guests were given
tours around the building to see some of the breath-taking features – including
a 20 metre living wall, which houses 11 different species of plant as well as
roosting spots for birds and bats. Also, guests visited the GroDome, a
state-of-the-art tropical greenhouse that resides on top of the 13,500 square metre building. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For me, the most impressive aspect of the building is the
five-storey glass laboratory wing, which supports ground breaking research from
a multitude of different disciplines – from bat bioacoustics studies to
virtual-led palaeontology. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The new Genomics Facility is set to transform the
university’s world class study into understanding the evolution and mapping of
entire genomes. Professor Keith Edwards, a cereal genomics expert from the
School of Biological Sciences, says:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">"From
the outset the new building was designed to</span> <span style="background: white;">have a state of the art genomics
facility; including two</span> <span style="background: white;">next generation
sequencers and a range of genotyping and robotic</span> <span style="background: white;">platforms. The new laboratories have been designed to minimise sample</span>
<span style="background: white;">to sample contamination via the use of
controlled air flow between</span> <span style="background: white;">rooms
operating at different pressures.”</span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="background: white;"><br /></span>
<span style="background: white;">Image Credit: </span><span style="color: #666666; font-size: 14px; font-style: italic; line-height: 21px;">Nick Smith | University of Bristol</span></span></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-76837114117987937482014-08-10T19:50:00.001+01:002014-08-10T19:50:33.440+01:00Tortoises master the tablet<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><i>by Daisy Dunne</i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A team of tortoises from the University of Lincoln have successfully learnt to use touchscreen technology to win treats from scientists, who hope to learn more about the reptile's unique method of processing spatial navigation. Whilst mammals use the hippocampus for matters of geography, reptiles are thought to use a similar enigmatic structure known as the reptilian medial cortex.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiq7FE5gY7dFynDqCkNbyYPeVqa75khKUOWNM1EpJsqrchJ7lbrkCJhumygSo-ePY5qtD7lG2aKShAoMlIjFcXnfDT8jyyFK-MO6grpt0GTJSgmEHrdbAv-RTyjcMiGfzOwOcKyk4s9woI/s1600/Tortoise.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiq7FE5gY7dFynDqCkNbyYPeVqa75khKUOWNM1EpJsqrchJ7lbrkCJhumygSo-ePY5qtD7lG2aKShAoMlIjFcXnfDT8jyyFK-MO6grpt0GTJSgmEHrdbAv-RTyjcMiGfzOwOcKyk4s9woI/s1600/Tortoise.jpg" height="368" width="640" /></a><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"Tortoises are perfect to study as they are considered largely unchanged from when they roamed the world millions of years ago,” says Anna Wilkinson, who trained the tortoises using strawberry rewards, “this research is important so we can better understand the evolution of the brain and the evolution of cognition."</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Impressively, two of the tortoises even went on to use the information they had learnt in a real life scenario. After learning to peck blue circles on one side of a screen in exchange for a reward, the reptiles chose to approach the same side of an experimental chamber when presented with two empty blue bowls similar to the virtual circles.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This outcome suggests that like the majority of animals, reptiles rely on 'landmarks', and not just simple motor processing, to orientate in their environment. Wilkinson hopes this study will open the door for a wider adoption of touchscreens in animal behavioural studies.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“The touchscreen is a brilliant solution as all animals can interact with it, whether it is with a paw, nose or beak. This allows us to compare the different cognitive capabilities", she says.</span><br />
<i><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></i>
<b><i><br /></i></b>Synapse Science Magazinehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02164879102603211850noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-86495081450105290342014-06-21T15:49:00.001+01:002014-06-21T15:49:29.403+01:00<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Synapse Science Magazinehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02164879102603211850noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-937495636697429584.post-46035625096345217952014-06-21T15:23:00.002+01:002014-06-21T15:32:38.029+01:00Inside story: Professor Andrew Orr-Ewing - School of Chemistry<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><i>Interview by Melissa Levy</i></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><b style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i><span style="color: #cc0000;">Q. Where did you go to university and what did you study?</span></i></b><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I went to university in Oxford where I studied both an undergraduate degree in chemistry and also for my PhD in chemistry, so I was there a total of 7 years.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><i>Q. How did you get from there to where you are now in Bristol?</i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When I finished in Oxford I went to work for two years at Stanford University in California which was a great experience as I worked with a very eminent professor there. Then I started thinking about my future and so I applied for something called a Royal Society University Research Fellowship which is a way in which you can move back to an academic position in the UK while having a lot of freedom as to where you go. It also gives you a chance to focus on your research. I was very fortunate in securing one of those which I chose to hold at Bristol. I didn't really know Bristol at the time, but I knew of some very good people here who I wanted to work alongside and so I selected Bristol as the best place to come to. I’ve never regretted that decision, it has turned out very well for me!</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><i>Q. How would you describe your research to someone who’s never studied chemistry?</i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There is quite a lot of different activity in my group but the connecting theme is that we use lasers to study interesting chemical processes, and those vary!</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One of the things we do is look at gases in the earth’s atmosphere; either detect them at very low concentration with sophisticated laser spectroscopy methods or we study how these molecules react in the presence of sunlight. So we look at the photochemistry that is driven by sunlight and we quantify that in terms of rate constants and things like that. That’s one aspect of the work that we do!</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The other work is much more fundamental. What we try to understand is how chemical reactions happen, and in the past four or five years we’ve started to ask how that happens in liquids which is a really complicated question because the molecules in liquids are colliding over very short time scales. We use very fancy laser equipment which generates pulses of about 10-14 seconds in duration to follow chemistry as it’s happening in liquids. So what we do is really just infrared spectroscopy but on ridiculously short time scales and that allows us to follow chemical reactions in real time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><i>Q. How would you describe your typical day in the lab/at university in general?</i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unfortunately I don’t spend very much time in the lab these days, just the nature of the job really – as you get older you tend to spend less time in the lab and more time in your office, so my research group do most of the activity in the lab these days.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But days are really varied, I do lots of different things so I don’t generally have a rigid plan. I come in and there’s always a pile of things that need doing; that might be writing papers, or it might be working on a PhD thesis draft that a student has sent me, or it might be refereeing a paper or a grant application, or it might be preparing for some teaching that I have to do that day. That’s one of the really nice things about the job – it’s very varied and it’s always intellectually challenging, so I’m happy to come in in the mornings. I do like to start quite early, it’s peaceful then and I can concentrate before all the interruptions start! The downside of it is what comes in on the email that you’re not expecting because that can disrupt any plans that you might have for the day.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But really it’s the variety that keeps most of us interested!</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><i>Q. If you had the choice to just do research instead of all of the other things you do as well, what would you choose?</i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I think that the teaching is a very important part of the job and it’s a part that I enjoy greatly. It’s very satisfying to be able to communicate things that excite you to other people and I wouldn't want to do a job that just involves pure research. The bit of the job that most of us don’t like is the more administrative side, it’s the more tedious aspect but it’s very necessary. But in general, the teaching is great fun and the research is great fun and for that reason I wouldn't want to be a pure researcher. Interacting with keen young students is one of the more rewarding aspects of the job.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><i>Q. What advice would you give someone looking for a career in science?</i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Academic careers can be a challenging path, because there are a limited number of job opportunities in universities to hold teaching and research positions. As a result, you have to know that you really want to go down that path and be prepared to be patient for a good position to open up. But studying for a science degree and doing research for a PhD creates lots of other opportunities too, in industry or many other areas where you can apply your scientific knowledge. Increasingly these days in things like environmental consultancy. I’d never discourage someone from studying science! I think it opens your eyes to a lot of important questions in the world around us and allows you to understand really significant issues, such as climate change. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><i>Q. If you could do research with anyone, dead or alive, who would it be?</i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">That’s a tricky one! </span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I’ve been very fortunate to work with some really talented scientists and that is extremely stimulating, you learn something from everyone you engage with. When you’re an active researcher you go to conferences and you mix with lots of scientists and learn something from all of these people. Often you’re in awe of how clever they are and how much they know that you don’t think you understand, which is a great motivation to keep educating yourself.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But I’m not really interested in celebrity science, so I don’t see that I would want to work with one of the greats of the past. I’m more interested with working with people who are enthusiastic and motivated and share my passion for particular areas of science.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So I’m going to dodge the question a bit and say that I’m really happy with the people that I work with here, both in my research group and my colleagues, who keep me interested in the work that we’re doing all the time – in terms of enjoying research, that’s definitely the way to do it.</span><br />
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